Combating Corruption in the Defense Sector

Undoubtedly, corruption is an acutely negative phenomenon that has no place in the modern world, especially if we are talking about critical areas that affect the functioning of the state, national security, and human rights protection. However, in order to identify the negative consequences of this phenomenon and consider countering corruption, it is first necessary to define what it is. One of the approaches was outlined by Ukrainian scholar Vanchyk (2024). Corruption can be seen as an integral part (feature) or one of the manifestations of organized crime. From this point of view, corruption is considered not as an independent phenomenon, but as a structural element, a systemic feature or a specific variant of organized crime. Under this approach, corruption can be recognized, for example, as bribery or other forms of misconduct by officials, but only as part of the overall system of organized crime.

The definition of corruption in this context has general features and is characterized by the absence of clear wording that would allow us to distinguish the essential features of this legal category. This means that corruption was considered as a specific socially dangerous act (crime), or, rather, as an abuse of office, which: (1) had the nature of self-interest; (2) was aimed at obtaining unlawful benefit or illegal acquisition of material or other benefits for personal or group benefit (Vanchyk Reference Vanchyk2014).

Williams (2021), a researcher from Norway, notes that corruption can be defined as a social, systemic phenomenon that consists of the misuse of personal position, status, and authority by persons with power or management authority for personal or corporate interests, which leads to the decay and degradation of power and social governance. According to Ukrainian scholar Gura (Reference Gura2021), corruption is a complex multidimensional systemic phenomenon that consists of the unlawful immoral use by persons with power or managerial authority of their own position, status, or authority in personal selfish interests for the purpose of enrichment or obtaining other kinds of preferences for themselves or others at the expense of the state or its citizens.

Thus, we can define corruption as a system of illegal actions, abuses, and relationships aimed at personal enrichment or other unlawful benefits through the use of power, position, or resources. Corruption undermines trust in society, violates justice, and can have serious consequences for the economy, politics, and social development.

Corruption is undoubtedly a negative phenomenon, as its presence has serious and destructive consequences for society and the state as a whole. It violates the principle of justice and equality, and undermines public trust in government structures and institutions. Corrupt practices generate inequality and conflict. Redistribution of resources in favor of a limited group of people leaves many citizens without attention and opportunities for development.

In addition, corruption threatens the effectiveness of public administration, undermines the rule of law, and threatens national security. It can lead to a decrease in investment and hinder economic development, and divert funds that should be invested in public and social sectors. Given all these factors, it is important to emphasize that the fight against corruption is essential to ensure the sustainable development of society and improve the quality of life of citizens. Achieving transparency, accountability, and efficiency in public administration and civil society are key steps towards overcoming the negative effects of corruption.

The issue of studying corruption in the defense sector deserves special attention. Such corruption has serious consequences for national security and the effectiveness of defense structures. Currently, the defense sector in Ukraine is one of the costliest sectors, as the country has to make efforts to protect its independence and territorial integrity (Piskun and Levchuk Reference Piskun and Levchuk2018). An important role in ensuring national security is played by the Armed Forces of Ukraine (AFU), which are responsible for protecting sovereignty, territorial integrity, and inviolability. It is important to realize that corruption is the main threat to the national security of the state, and its impact can be traced to all other security risks. It promotes the development of various forms of organized crime, increases social instability, and limits the ability of the state to perform the functions entrusted to it by society, which makes economic growth impossible. Corruption in the defense sector becomes a deterrent to the country’s development in peacetime, and in martial law or conflict it becomes a threat to the very existence of the state.

It is worth emphasizing that Ukraine has been fighting a war for its independence since 2014 and is actively fighting corruption in the defense sector, which was born out of the Soviet approach. Since the beginning of Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine on February 24, 2022, the issue of corruption has become a key one, as the existence of corruption in a state that is at war against an invader can lead to its absolute destruction and decline. Therefore, the state is actively taking measures at the legal, institutional, and practical levels to overcome any manifestations of corruption. First of all, it is worth emphasizing the creation of an effective legal framework. Establishing an effective legal framework for combating corruption in the defense sector is a key step in the fight against this problem. This process includes the development and implementation of laws and regulations that establish clear rules, requirements and mechanisms for preventing, detecting, and suppressing corruption in the defense sector (Korniienko et al. Reference Korniienko, Petrunenko, Yena, Pankratova and Vozniakovska2020).

Ukraine’s Anti-Corruption Legislation

It is worth noting that Ukraine has a broad anti-corruption legislation represented by laws and regulations. Among them, the Law of Ukraine On Prevention of Corruption of 2014 is perhaps the most important. This law defines the legal and organizational framework for the functioning of the system of corruption prevention in Ukraine, the content and procedure for the application of preventive anti-corruption mechanisms, and the rules for eliminating the consequences of corruption offenses (Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine 2014b).

Ukraine’s anti-corruption legislation is an important component of the national anti-corruption strategy. It aims to create an effective system of norms and mechanisms aimed at preventing, detecting, and suppressing corrupt practices in various spheres of society, including the defense sector. Many laws require public officials to declare their income, expenses, and property. This creates an opportunity for the public, the media, and anti-corruption bodies to monitor the possibility of illicit enrichment. In general, the system of anti-corruption legislation in Ukraine is aimed at creating an effective system of control and prevention of corruption, strengthening transparency and openness in the activities of state structures, and ensuring accountability for violators.

It is worth noting that Ukraine has previously reformed the anti-corruption sector. The main goal of anti-corruption reform is seen as achieving the proper implementation of anti-corruption legislation, successful implementation of new anti-corruption mechanisms, and creation of an effective institutional system for preventing and combating corruption. Accordingly, activities to prevent and combat corruption in all spheres, including the military, should be carried out on a systematic basis, taking into account the specifics of the Armed Forces and other military formations of Ukraine, and be permanent (Petrushko and Kostenko Reference Petrushko and Kostenko2017). Thus, Ukraine has the Law of Ukraine On the National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine of 2014. This Law defines the legal basis for the organization and activities of the National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine. It was established in 2015 as an independent state body. According to the Law, it is a central executive body with a special status, which is responsible for preventing, detecting, stopping, investigating, and solving corruption and other criminal offenses under its jurisdiction, as well as preventing new violations. The main objective of the National Anti-Corruption Bureau is to prevent, detect, and solve corruption, including those involving high-ranking officials and public officials.

One of the key areas of the Bureau’s work is corruption prevention. The Bureau develops and implements measures to prevent corruption, conducts risk analysis, and develops proposals for improving anti-corruption legislation. This includes both organizational measures and legal support for anti-corruption policy. To achieve its goal, the Bureau conducts investigations in accordance with the law, uses specialized investigative methods, and cooperates with other law enforcement and regulatory agencies. An important function of the Bureau is to facilitate the punishment of those guilty of corrupt practices and bring them to justice in accordance with the law. In addition, it cooperates with the public, media, and other stakeholders to help raise public awareness of corruption risks and promote an open and transparent environment.

In general, the National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine is a key instrument in the fight against high-level corruption aimed at ensuring honesty, transparency, and accountability in public administration and officials (Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine 2014a).

In order to prevent, detect, stop, and solve criminal offenses that fall under its jurisdiction, the detectives of the Bureau, by decision of the Director of the National Bureau and in agreement with the prosecutor of the specialized anti-corruption prosecutor’s office, may also investigate criminal offenses that fall under the jurisdiction of investigators of other bodies (Lehin Reference Lehin2019).

The Bureau’s achievements include exposing and prosecuting a number of high-ranking officials, including members of parliament, judges, heads of state-owned enterprises, and others (Sorskyi Reference Sorskyi2020). The Bureau’s activities have significantly strengthened control over compliance with legislation in the areas of public finance, procurement, and other important areas (Skomarov Reference Skomarov2017). The introduction of electronic asset declarations for public officials has become an important tool in the fight against corruption, allowing the public and regulatory authorities to verify the accuracy of the information provided.

Despite the fact that the Bureau was established as a special anti-corruption body, the powers of law enforcement agencies to prosecute corruption offenses were not unified. According to Article 216 of the Criminal Procedure Code of Ukraine, the pre-trial investigation of corruption criminal offenses, in addition to the National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine, is also carried out by the national police and the State Bureau of Investigation (Hrechaniuk Reference Hrechaniuk2015; Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine 2012).

The Bureau also promotes legal culture and public awareness of corruption risks, which is an important aspect of corruption prevention. Thus, the Bureau’s activities are an important component of the system of anti-corruption measures in Ukraine aimed at ensuring transparency, accountability, and integrity in public administration.

The Bureau also plays an important role in combating and investigating corruption crimes in the military sphere. Thus, the Bureau conducts pre-trial investigations of corruption crimes committed by officials in military structures, including the Ministry of Defense, the Armed Forces of Ukraine, and other military formations. This includes crimes related to embezzlement of budget funds, illegal procurement, and abuse of power and official position. It is also actively working to identify corruption schemes in military structures, particularly in the area of public procurement. The Bureau conducts investigations into illegal overpricing of goods and services, supply of low-quality military equipment and supplies, and manipulation of tenders and contracts. Moreover, the Bureau analyzes corruption risks in military structures and develops recommendations for improving the legislative and regulatory framework. This helps to prevent corruption offenses and increase the effectiveness of anti-corruption measures in the military sector.

There are already a number of cases where the Bureau has uncovered corruption schemes in the army. For example, detectives uncovered a corruption scheme in the procurement of food by the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine in 2024. The case of purchasing food for the military at inflated prices has been going on since the spring of 2023. The procurement of the Ministry of Defense was analyzed and it was found that in the first half of 2023, it purchased food at prices 30% higher than consumer prices. The Ministry of Defense also did not analyze the cost, did not control the actual quantity of products supplied, and 75% of the items in the food catalog were not supplied to units at all (Lysohor Reference Lysohor2024).

The Bureau sent to court a case regarding misappropriation of funds of Pavlohrad Chemical Plant and causing additional damage to the enterprise in the form of lost profits. According to the investigation, one of the heads of the enterprise, which is managed by the Ministry of Strategic Industries of Ukraine and is a key enterprise for defense and security, entered into a conspiracy with the beneficial owner of a private company. According to the contract, after receiving 40% of the prepayment, the company was supposed to supply measuring devices, but despite having the necessary goods, it failed to do so. Thanks to the coordinated work of the detectives and the prosecutor, the property of the accused was seized for a total amount of over UAH 55 million (National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine 2024).

The Bureau’s importance was also evident in other military areas. In March 2022 alone, the Bureau detained and handed over more than 50 people to the Security Service of Ukraine, obtained and forwarded 284 pieces of information on the location and movement of enemy equipment to the Armed Forces of Ukraine, withdrew Armed Forces units from the threat of shelling and destruction seven times, interviewed more than 40,000 people, and registered more than 10 criminal proceedings on war crimes (National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine 2022).

The Bureau’s activities in the military structures contribute to a significant strengthening of control over compliance with the law, ensuring transparency of financial transactions and increasing the responsibility of officials for corruption offenses, which emphasizes its important role in combating corruption in the defense sector.

In addition, the system of anti-corruption institutions also includes other bodies. For example, the National Agency for the Prevention of Corruption (NAPC) is a key specialized anti-corruption body, which was established by the Law on Prevention of Corruption. The NAPC is a central executive body with a special status (Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine 2014b). At the operational level, the Specialized Anti-Corruption Prosecutor’s Office can also be distinguished, which provides procedural guidance and supports the public prosecution in the High Anti-Corruption Court in proceedings. Accordingly, the High Anti-Corruption Court is the highest specialized court in the judicial system of Ukraine, which considers proceedings on corruption crimes and makes decisions as a court of first instance and appeal.

The NAPC develops and implements anti-corruption programs aimed at preventing corruption in the military. This includes analyzing corruption risks, developing recommendations to minimize them and implementing preventive measures (Prokopiv Reference Prokopiv2018). This body also monitors compliance with anti-corruption legislation by military officials. The Agency controls the timeliness and accuracy of income, expenditure, and property declarations filed by military personnel and other officials. The NAPC cooperates with the Bureau and the Anti-Corruption Court, as well as other law enforcement agencies, to ensure a comprehensive approach to fighting corruption in the military. This interaction allows for the pooling of efforts and resources to more effectively investigate and prosecute corrupt officials.

The Anti-Corruption Court of Ukraine

The Anti-Corruption Court of Ukraine was established in 2019 as a specialized judicial body designed to ensure fair and impartial consideration of cases related to corruption offenses (Myrhorod-Karpova and Murach Reference Myrhorod-Karpova and Murach2022). The main purpose of this court is to hear cases related to corruption offenses committed by high-ranking officials and other officials, including military structures. The judicial jurisdiction of the Anti-Corruption Court covers proceedings referred by the National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine (Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine 2018a). In its first year of operation, the High Anti-Corruption Court of Ukraine has proven to be an independent and effective anti-corruption institution, and its judges have proven to be professionals. This is the conclusion of most experts who monitor the launch and work of this court (Solonyna Reference Solonyna2020).

The Court plays a crucial role in ensuring fair justice in cases of corruption in the military. It considers cases of abuse of power, embezzlement of public funds, illegal procurement, and other corruption offenses committed in the Ministry of Defense, the Armed Forces of Ukraine, and other military formations. One of the key functions of the Anti-Corruption Court is to decide on the guilt or innocence of those accused of corruption offenses and determine the degree of punishment. This ensures that officials are held accountable for corrupt practices and contributes to the improvement of law and order in the military.

The Сourt also contributes to increasing the transparency of trials, which is an important aspect for the public and international partners. Open court hearings and public coverage of judgments promote trust in the judicial system and increase the level of accountability of the military.

For example, in 2024, the High Anti-Corruption Court imposed a pre-trial restraint on the head of one of the Rivne Customs departments – two months in custody with bail of almost UAH 15 million. He is suspected of systematically extorting bribes for customs clearance of imported goods at reduced tariffs (Lapikptska Reference Lapikptska2024).

So, the Anti-Corruption Court is the final link in the chain of anti-corruption bodies. Society has high hopes that this judicial body will help strengthen the fight against corruption. Only the effective functioning of the court, the inevitability of punishment, and fair sanctions for violations of anti-corruption legislation will have a real effect in reducing the level of corruption in Ukraine (Popadynets and Zubyk Reference Popadynets and Zubyk2022). The Court plays an important role in combating corruption in the military by ensuring impartiality and fair justice. Its activities contribute to strengthening control over compliance with the law, increasing the accountability of officials and ensuring transparency of financial transactions, which are key aspects in the fight against corruption in the defense sector.

In order to ensure the effectiveness of the system of preventing and combating corruption in Ukraine, in addition to anti-corruption bodies, there are also state structures known as involved bodies. The essential difference between these two categories lies in their specialization. Anti-corruption agencies focus on developing and monitoring anti-corruption policy, investigating and prosecuting cases involving high-level corruption and significant financial amounts that require specialized analysis and resources. The agencies involved also carry out a number of anti-corruption measures and strengthen the anti-corruption system within their respective mandates. This helps to make anti-corruption activities more extensive and effective.

Ukraine started implementing a fully fledged anti-corruption infrastructure and creating specialized anti-corruption bodies in 2014. This follows logically from national efforts to integrate into the European Union (EU) and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), as well as to improve the legal framework. Ukraine is actively involved in international anti-corruption initiatives and is a party to the main international anti-corruption instruments. This includes the ratification of the United Nations (UN) Convention against Corruption (UNCAC), membership in the Group of States against Corruption (GRECO), and participation in various monitoring programs that assess progress in the fight against corruption. Joining the EU is of great importance for Ukraine in the context of fighting corruption. The EU imposes strict requirements on the rule of law, transparency, and accountability, which facilitates the implementation of structural reforms in Ukraine. Participation in the EU also provides access to financial and technical assistance for the implementation of anti-corruption measures. European integration encourages Ukraine to further strengthen its institutions and bring its national legislation in line with European standards. For example, as noted in the “Ukraine 2023 Report”:

Joining NATO

The issue of combating corruption in the military is extremely relevant both in the context of the current military conflict and in view of Ukraine’s aspirations to join NATO. The Alliance demands high standards of governance, transparency, and accountability in the military sphere from its members. Participation in NATO contributes to the modernization of Ukraine’s defense sector, the introduction of effective control mechanisms, and the proper use of resources. This helps to strengthen national security and increase resilience to external and internal threats. Joining NATO is highly important for Ukraine to ensure national security and stability. Membership in NATO provides the country with collective defense guarantees, which is crucial in light of aggression from Russia. It also contributes to the modernization of Ukraine’s armed forces, enhancing their combat readiness, and integrating them into the Euro-Atlantic security space. Additionally, NATO membership fosters political and economic stability, attracts investments, and strengthens the country’s international standing. It also stimulates reforms in the security and defense sectors, improving the effectiveness of state governance.

However, corruption poses a significant obstacle to Ukraine’s accession to NATO. The high level of corruption undermines trust in Ukraine among NATO member countries, as corruption can lead to the leakage of classified information, inefficient use of financial resources, and decreased combat readiness of the armed forces (The New Voice of Ukraine 2024). Military structures affected by corruption may be less effective in fulfilling their duties, jeopardizing NATO’s collective security (Bullough Reference Bullough2023). Therefore, combating corruption is critically important for Ukraine to meet NATO standards and ensure its future security and stability.

It is worth noting that the EU regularly evaluates Ukraine’s efforts to fight corruption as part of the Association Agenda and reports on the implementation of the Association Agreement. These reports highlight progress in establishing anti-corruption bodies, implementing e-declarations, and other reforms. However, it is noted that Ukraine still needs to work on ensuring the independence of anti-corruption bodies and the effectiveness of judicial review of corruption cases.

Creation of New Anti-Corruption Bodies

International experience confirms that the creation of new anti-corruption bodies is more efficient and faster than reforming existing structures. Ukraine has chosen a similar approach, which has also been positively assessed by the international expert community (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2020). Among other practical measures, corrupt schemes in the defense sector are being actively identified and punished. According to S. Bobrovska (Kyrylenko and Buderatskyi Reference Kyrylenko and Buderatskyi2023), a member of the Committee on National Security, Defense and Intelligence, the system of Territorial Centers of Recruitment and Social Support (TRCs) should be reorganized as much as possible according to the Western model. According to another expert, co-founder of the non-governmental organization “Principle”, which deals with human rights protection of the military, L. Halan: the network of military registration and enlistment offices is developed and takes the necessary measures to counter Russia, but the very concept of its work needs to be gradually changed (Mazur Reference Mazur2023).

On February 2, 2023, the Security Service of Ukraine announced the disclosure and termination of a large-scale corruption scheme organized by the leadership of the Sumy Regional Military Administration. Officials misappropriated funds intended for the region to overcome the consequences of hostilities and shelling by the Russian occupiers, including the restoration of infrastructure.

In addition, a large-scale scheme of illegal use of public funds intended for the development of the military infrastructure of the Defense Forces was terminated. According to the Security Service of Ukraine, the former head of the Main Housing and Maintenance Department of the Armed Forces and a senior officer of the technical supervision department of the construction of the said institution were involved in organizing these actions (Chernovol Reference Chernovol2023).

There is a scandalous case of one of the TRC representatives. Thus, on June 22, 2023, it became known that the family of Odesa TRC head Yevhen Borysov had a villa in a resort in Spain. The Verkhovna Rada initiated an audit of all regional TRCs, and Borysov was fired. On July 4, 2023, AFU Commander Zaluzhnyi appointed his replacement, a combat officer, a colonel. Prior to that, the State Bureau of Investigation exposed the heads of TRCs who promised to help avoid mobilization in Poltava, Lviv, Rivne, Khmelnytskyi, Ternopil, and Donetsk regions in exchange for bribes (Mazur Reference Mazur2023).

In addition, on August 17, 2023, the President of Ukraine signed Presidential Decree No. 491/2023 on the Decision of the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine of August 11, 2023 on the Results of the Inspection of Territorial Recruitment and Social Support Centers of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. According to the Decree, the heads of all regional TRCs were dismissed (President of Ukraine 2023).

All of the above measures and approaches to combating corruption in the defense sector show that Ukraine has taken on the task and taken concrete steps to overcome this problem. In particular, the country has been actively working at the legislative level to strengthen the anti-corruption framework and introduce the necessary accountability mechanisms. Initiatives to establish special control bodies and anti-corruption units in the defense sector indicate the recognition of the need for targeted action.

Another international organization – Transparency International – also notes positive changes. Thus, according to the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) (Transparency International 2023), in 2023, Ukraine scored 36 points out of 100 in the CPI, ranking 104th out of 180 countries. Ukraine’s three-point increase is one of the best results in the world over the past year. Ukraine is also among the 17 countries that have demonstrated the highest scores this year in the CPI.

Transparency and accessibility of information have become key aspects in the fight against corruption. Measures to publish data on financial transactions and expenditures of defense institutions allow for public scrutiny and ensure accountability to the authorities. The development of codes of ethics and training of defense personnel raise awareness of the inadmissibility of corrupt practices and strengthen the internal culture of responsibility. The outbreak of full-scale military aggression and occupation of territories have become a catalyst for intensifying the fight against corruption in Ukraine. Under such conditions, effective resource management has become a particularly important task, and the introduction of anti-corruption mechanisms has become a necessity for maintaining military potential and national security.

Types of Corruption in the Defense Sector: From Bribery to Money Laundering

The range of corrupt practices in the defense sector includes various violations and abuses aimed at personal enrichment, obtaining undue advantage and violation of the law. Typical corruption misconduct includes bribery, embezzlement of budget funds, manipulation of official documents, and abuse of office for profit. The public procurement sector is particularly vulnerable to corruption, manifesting itself through the unlawful winning of tenders through bribes, the misuse of budget funds through forged documents, and the provision of final benefits to one’s own persons by unjustifiably rejecting competitive offers from other possible suppliers. Trading in official powers, when officials use their status for personal gain, is also a common phenomenon (State Financial Monitoring Service of Ukraine 2016).

Bribery and extortion are serious acts of corruption that occur when officials or employees demand or accept money, gifts, favors, or other benefits in exchange for various illegal services, favorable decisions, relinquishment of control, or other actions that they are required to perform in accordance with their duties. This may apply to both public officials and private individuals with whom they interact. It should be noted that bribery is the process of providing money, gifts, services, or other material values to officials or employees in order to influence their actions or decisions. Bribery can be covert or overt, but it is always aimed at securing the personal benefit of the person giving the bribe (Cherneha Reference Cherneha2016).

To counter bribery and extortion of undue advantage in the defense sector, effective anti-corruption measures should be implemented, including the establishment of independent control bodies, strengthening legislation, and expanding public oversight of officials and employees.

Unfair agreements and contracts are one of the most common forms of corruption in the defense sector and other industries. These agreements involve the illegal or unethical use of state resources, budget funds, as well as violations of economic and financial rules in the form of misuse and forgery of documents. These are agreements concluded between entities (often officials) and enterprises that violate the requirements of the law, ethical norms, and procedures. This may include overpricing of goods or services, unreasonable changes in contract terms, hidden fees, or other underhand actions aimed at obtaining illegal benefits. Unfair agreements and contracts not only lead to the loss of public resources, but also undermine trust in the government, violate equality before the law, and undermine the effectiveness of public administration. To combat this phenomenon, it is necessary to strengthen anti-corruption mechanisms, increase transparency and accountability in procurement processes, and ensure strict adherence to rules and procedures.

Money laundering is a very important problem that needs to be actively addressed. It is worth emphasizing that all countries of the world are actively fighting this phenomenon, especially in the financial sector. Money laundering in the defense sector is a special type of financial corruption that has serious consequences for national security and defense capabilities. It is a process in which criminals attempt to conceal illegally acquired funds through the defense system or the military–industrial complex in order to legalize these funds and use them for their own benefit. Ensuring financial stability at all levels of government is a significant task for most countries, including Ukraine. The level of financial stability of the state is the main indicator that determines its ability to effectively influence economic and financial policy in accordance with its national interests. In particular, the issues of ensuring financial stability become even more relevant in the context of martial law, which requires more detailed analysis and attention (Shyriaieva and Kunevych Reference Shyriaieva and Kunevych2023).

Money laundering in the defense sector can lead to serious consequences, such as reduced quality or insufficient readiness of military equipment, violation of national security, and deviation from defense doctrine (Bukhtiarova Reference Bukhtiarova2020). Combating money laundering in the defense sector requires strengthening controls, enhancing anti-corruption mechanisms, and ensuring transparency in all stages of defense procurement and transactions. Effective anti-corruption strategies and monitoring mechanisms will help prevent and stop illegal financial transactions, ensuring the country’s reliable and secure defense capability (State Financial Monitoring Service of Ukraine 2016).

Also, in the context of the research topic, it is worth highlighting lobbying of interests. This is a process by which individuals, groups, or organizations try to influence the decision-making of government officials, politicians, and other authorities in order to protect or support their own interests. In the defense sector, lobbying can have a great negative impact, as this sector concerns national security, defense capability, and important strategic issues of the country. Lobbyists can focus their efforts on influencing decision-making on the military budget, arms supply, military-technical cooperation with other countries, as well as on reforming and modernizing the armed forces (Stelmakh Reference Stelmakh2021). In the field of defense, negative manifestations of lobbying can have serious consequences for the national security and defense capability of the country. The negative impact of lobbying may be that it can facilitate the conclusion of unfair agreements and contracts in the defense sector. This can lead to embezzlement of public funds, unsatisfactory quality of purchased weapons and equipment, and reduced effectiveness of military operations.

Regulation of Arms Circulation and Control in the Context of Their Uncontrolled Proliferation in Connection with the War in Ukraine

Arms control is an important issue both in the context of the country’s defense capability and as one of the ways for corruption to develop in the defense sector. First of all, let us look at why the issue of arms control is important in general. The issue of illicit arms trafficking is highly relevant, as this type of activity leads to serious threats to the national security and interests of the country. Illicit arms trafficking leads to an increase in the number of offenses, terrorist acts, robberies, and violence against citizens and animals. Illicit arms trafficking is characterized by threats on three levels. The first level is personal, as illegal arms trafficking poses threats to every citizen. Even just walking down the street, a person can be in danger as a result of unforeseen confrontations, and may become an unknown party in a conflict. Of course, this limits their freedom of action. Second, the consequences of illicit arms trafficking are also felt at the level of society as a whole. Beyond its borders, such activities lead to increased conflicts and destabilization, and create obstacles to development. Finally, the third level is the state level, since illicit arms trafficking can play a role in violating state sovereignty and territorial integrity, contributing to the aggravation of the situation at the international level (Smokov et al. Reference Smokov, Horoshko, Korniienko and Medvedenko2022).

After the large-scale invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation, this topic has become even more relevant due to several key factors. First, new opportunities and ways of acquiring weapons have opened up, which has led to an increase in the number of weapons in Ukraine.

Second, the threat to personal security has increased, expanding the possibilities of civil defense within the framework of the law. This has led to a negative social and psychological context that can increase the threat to the life and safety of citizens in the presence of weapons.

Third, circumstances have emerged that require personal protection, and this need may be met through the illegal acquisition of weapons. In this regard, there is a need to control and regulate arms trafficking, as well as to determine their legitimate use, which should be established at the moment and stopped and seized when the need is no longer necessary or in the case of violation of legal norms. Thus, illicit arms trafficking is a serious threat to national security, and given Russia’s full-scale invasion, this problem has become even more urgent and critical (Karmanau Reference Karmanau2016).

The issue of illicit arms trafficking has become most relevant in connection with Russia’s full-scale invasion, but we believe that it may be a problem that may be underestimated and not given due attention today. This problem can be included in the list of current and foreseeable threats to the national security and national interests of Ukraine, taking into account the foreign policy and domestic circumstances envisaged in the National Security Strategy of Ukraine, 2022 (President of Ukraine 2022).

According to the Law of Ukraine On National Security of Ukraine, 2018, threats to national security are phenomena, trends, and factors that may complicate or even make it impossible to realize national interests and preserve national values of Ukraine. Such national interests include vital aspects for the individual, society, and the state that contribute to Ukraine’s state sovereignty, democratic development, and the well-being of its citizens. From this perspective, illicit arms trafficking negatively affects the safety and well-being of citizens, creating threats and risks to their lives (Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine 2018b). Thus, illicit arms trafficking can be viewed as a current threat, as it already poses dangers to Ukraine’s national interests, and as a potential threat, as its possible development and deepening may cause new problems that interfere with illicit arms trafficking and complicate control over this process.

The issue of illicit arms trafficking is complex. First, firearms are manufactured and sold both legally and illegally, making it difficult to trace illegally manufactured weapons. In addition, a significant proportion of firearms are produced legally but then illegally enter the market. As in other areas of illicit activity, arms trafficking uses new sales channels, which leads to an increase in illicit trafficking and makes it more difficult to control.

Criminal organizations use modern technologies, but they do not stay away from classical methods. An example is the use of postal services to smuggle weapons into countries. They send parts and components separately to make them harder to detect. Globalization creates conditions for the spread of international crime, including arms trafficking, and reinforces other negative phenomena, such as drug trafficking, human trafficking, terrorism, and extremism, which can have an impact on national security (Martyniuk Reference Martyniuk2017).

Given the potential threats and consequences that illicit arms trafficking can cause, governments and international organizations see it as a real problem and a threat to national security and the achievement of national goals and interests. For example, Sustainable Development Goal 16, which aims to promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, explicitly points to the importance of significantly reducing arms flows by 2030. Thus, the international community has recognized the importance of monitoring illicit arms flows and, in particular, collecting standardized data and information on seized, found, and surrendered weapons (United Nations 2015).

According to the National Security Strategy of Ukraine, low levels of well-being are a source of negative sentiment, violence, and political discord, and contribute to the strengthening of radical public views and conditions for various negative phenomena, such as political violence, the activities of illegal armed groups, terrorism, etc. In our opinion, illicit arms trafficking only exacerbates these threats to national security, and, in practice, reducing this phenomenon can have a positive impact on improving welfare, reducing political violence, the activities of illegal groups, and overcoming other national security challenges (President of Ukraine 2022).

However, the most important feature of the danger posed by illicit arms trafficking is its ability to amplify and exacerbate other typical threats to national security. For example, in Latin America, it leads to intergroup violence, and in Europe, it leads to the growth of terrorism. In Ukraine, illicit arms trafficking also emphasizes and increases other threats, such as hybrid activities of the Russian Federation, separatism, etc. (Department of Communication of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine 2023).

Ukraine is currently taking active steps to regulate and control arms trafficking. One of the key components of this is the Unified State Register of Weapons, which was launched on June 23, 2023. This innovation allows weapons to be registered without visiting the National Police by using the Single Citizen’s Window or by contacting gun shops. During the first month of the Unified State Register of Weapons, citizens submitted more than 23,000 applications and petitions, of which about 19,000 were considered (Department of Communication of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine 2023).

Other important aspects of implementing arms control include mandatory declaration of weapons received by citizens from law enforcement agencies or the Armed Forces, found or obtained as a trophy on the battlefield. Such weapons are state property and must be returned within 90 days after the lifting of martial law. Weapons will be registered with the police under a simplified procedure and free of charge. The state also envisages the development of a network of shooting hubs where citizens will be taught how to handle and store weapons, and where services for the repair, maintenance, and sale of weapons will be available.

Illegal arms trafficking and corruption are deeply interconnected, which can significantly undermine national security and pose serious threats to society and the state. Corruption affects arms trafficking on several levels. First and foremost, corruption can facilitate the acquisition and trafficking of arms by bribing officials responsible for arms control and regulation. Corrupt officials may allow illegal suppliers and traders to illegally import and sell arms, circumventing the law. It is also worth noting that these phenomena are linked in the area of document falsification.

Corruption can lead to the falsification of documents required for the legal production and trade of arms. Fake permits and certificates can help to export weapons to the illegal market. Corrupt officials can contribute to the delay or postponement of investigations into arms trafficking, allowing criminal groups to continue their activities with impunity. The absence of effective control mechanisms caused by corruption can help illicit traffickers evade detection and seizure of illicit weapons (Golovin et al. Reference Golovin, Nazymko, Koropatov and Korniienko2022).

In general, corruption makes it more difficult to combat illicit arms trafficking, reduces the level of trust in law enforcement and government agencies, and creates favorable conditions for the growth of criminal activity and threats to national security.