1 “[O]ne of the most faithful and oldest champions of the Red Cross.” Comité Central, “Le docteur Landa”, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, No. 89, 1892, p. 41Google Scholar.

2 To the best of the author's knowledge, accounts of Dr Landa's life and works in languages other than Spanish are limited to two very short in memoriams published in French following his death in 1891. These are Comité Central, above note 1, p. 40; and Campos, M. Torres, “Nicasio Landa: Notice communiquée par M. Torres Campos”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 11, 1889–92, p. 76Google Scholar. To these, one can add an editorial note that was intended as an introduction to the reproduction of a letter written on 3 July 1873 by Dr Landa to Gustave Moynier in which Landa described the activities of the Spanish Red Cross during the Third Carlist Wars. See “Regards vers le passé: La belle figure morale du Dr. Nicasio Landa”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 35, No. 411, 1953, p. 195Google Scholar. This letter had been originally published as “Espagne: La Guerre Civile: Pampelune, le 3 juillet 1873”, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, No. 17, 1873, p. 34Google Scholar.

3 See e.g. ICRC, “60 Years on the Side of Humanity: A Commitment that Has Never Waned”, 16 February 2023, available at: www.icrc.org/en/who-we-are/history/160-years-humanity (all internet references were accessed in August 2024).

4 Kohen, Marcelo and van der Heijden, Iris (eds), Liber Memorialis 1873–2023: Institute of International Law: 150 Years of Contributing to the Development of International Law – Justitia et Pace (1873–2023), A. Pedone, Paris, 2023Google Scholar.

5 See generally e.g. Koskenniemi, Martti, The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law (1870–1960), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 See e.g. “The Role of Gustave Moynier in the Founding of the Institute of International Law (1873): The War in the Balkans (1857–1878), the Manual of the Laws of War (1880)”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 34, No. 303, 1994, p. 544Google Scholar; Rivier, Alphonse, “Notice historique sur l'Institut de droit international: Sa foundation et sa première session: Gand 1873”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 1, 1877, p. 12Google Scholar.

7 Lavin, Virginia and Mata, Rodolfo (coord.), “Especial 150 aniversario de la Revista de Cruz Roja”, Cruz Roja, 2020Google Scholar, available at: www.cruzroja.es/especial-150-aniversario-revista/.

8 Accounts of Landa's life and work have featured in works by Spanish historians of military medicine and the Spanish Red Cross, the latest and most extensive of which is José Javier Viñes, El doctor Nicasio Landa (1830–1891), co-fundador de la Cruz Roja Española, Government of Navarra and Spanish Red Cross, Navarra, 2014. By contrast, Spanish international law scholars have never devoted any specific attention to Landa's life and works other than synoptically in connection to the fact that he was the first Spanish member of the IDI: see e.g. Rozas, Jose Carlos Fernández, “Rafael Altamira: Formación, promoción y desempeño del oficio de ius-internacionalista”, e-Legal History Review, No. 36, 2022, p. 20Google Scholar.

9 See above note 2.

10 Landa, Nicasio, El derecho de la guerra conforme a la moral, 1st ed., Imprenta Provincial, Pamplona, 1867Google Scholar.

11 This term is applied retrospectively, as it did not originate until 1953. See De Baets, Antoon, “The View of the Past in International Humanitarian Law (1860–2020)”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 104, No. 920–921, 2022, p. 1588CrossRefGoogle Scholar, referring to ICRC, Report on the Work of the International Committee of the Red Cross (January 1 to December 31, 1952), Geneva, 1953, p. 67.

12 Institute of International Law, The Laws of War on Land, Oxford, 9 September 1880 (Oxford Manual), available at: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/oxford-manual-1880.

13 “M. de Landa: Rapporteur ‘Dixieme commission d'etudes – Mesures de police sanitaire internationale’”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 9, 1887–88, p. 314.

14 “Onzième commission – Mesures de police sanitaire internationale”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 10, 1888–89, p. 251.

15 See Fidler, David P., International Law and Infectious Diseases, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 According to the World Health Organization's “WHO Covid-19 Dashboard”, available at: https://data.who.int/dashboards/covid19/deaths?n=c.

17 Nehal Bhuta “A Thousand Flowers Blooming, or the Desert of the Real? International Law and Its Many Problems of History”, in Randall Lesaffer and Anne Peters (eds), The Cambridge History of International Law, Vol. 1: The Historiography of International Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2024, p. 101. A good illustration is Frederic Megret and Immi Tallgren (eds), The Dawn of a Discipline: International Criminal Justice and Its Early Exponents, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020.

18 Bardo Fassbender and Anne Peters, “Introduction: Towards a Global History of International Law”, in Bardo Fassbender and Anne Peters (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the History of International Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2012, p. 11.

19 See e.g. Amanda Alexander, “A Short History of International Humanitarian Law”, European Journal of International Law, Vol. 26, No. 1, 2015, p. 109.

20 Immi Tallgren (ed.), Portraits of Women in International Law: New Names and Forgotten Faces?, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2023.

21 Randall Lesaffer, “Scope, Scale and Humility in the History of International Law”, in R. Lesaffer and A. Peters (eds), above note 17, p. 3.

22 See e.g. R. Ottaviani, D. Vanni, M. G. Baccolo and P. Vanni, “Louis Appia (1818–98): Military Surgeon and Member of the International Committee of the Red Cross”, Journal of Medical Biography, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2011, p. 117. See, also Gustave Moynier and Louis Appia, La guerre et la charité: Traite théorique et pratique de philanthropie appliquée aux armées en campagne, Librairie Cherbouliez, Geneva, 1867.

23 Wolfgang U. Eckart and Philipp Osten (eds), Schlachtschrecken – Konventionen Das Rote Kreuz und die Erfindung der Menschlichkeit im Kriege, Neuere Medizin- und Wissenschaftsgeschichte, Vol. 20, Centaurus Verlag & Media, Herbolzheim, 2011.

24 See e.g. David P. Fidler, “The Globalization of Public Health: The First 100 Years of International Health Diplomacy”, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, Vol. 79, No. 9, 2001.

25 “Landa Albizu, Rufino”, Auñamendi eusko entziklopedia, available at: https://aunamendi.eusko-ikaskuntza.eus/es/landa-albizu-rufino/ar-84798/.

26 The Carlist Wars confronted the Northern and rural-based ultra-Catholic, legitimist and foralist supporters of the pretender Don Carlos, brother of King Ferdinand VII (1784–1833) against the dynastic rights of Ferdinand's daughter, Isabella II (1830–1904) in alliance with liberal urban-based constitutionalist forces. See e.g. Josep Carles Clemente, Breve historia de las guerras carlistas, Nowtilus, Barcelona, 2011.

27 Radio Television Española, “Historias de la medicina, Nicasio Landa”, 18 November 2014, available at: www.rtve.es/play/audios/historias-de-la-medicina/historias-medicina-nicasio-landa-18-11-14/2864666/.

28 Antonio Cassese, “Current Challenges to International Humanitarian Law”, in Andrew Clapham and Paola Gaeta (eds), The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2014, p. 5.

29 Enrique Samaniego Arrillaga, “Nicasio Landa: Vasco universal”, Boletín de la Real Sociedad Bascongada de Amigos del País, Vol. 59, No. 2, 2003, p. 614.

30 Nicasio Landa and Alvarez de Carvallo, “Consideraciones acerca de la influencia de la civilización en la salud pública”, Imprenta del Colegio de Sordo-Mudos, Madrid, 1856.

31 For a discussion on facets related to the military career of Nicasio Landa, see the two consecutive articles by Juan Ramón Navarro Carballo, “El subinspector médico de primera Don Nicasio de Landa y Álvarez de Carvallo”, Sanidad Militar: Revista de Sanidad de las Fuerzas Militares de Espana, Vol. 46, Nos 3 and 4, 1990, pp. 366 and 469 respectively.

32 Memorial de Sanidad del Ejército y Armada, 1858–1860, available at: https://bibliotecavirtual.defensa.gob.es/BVMDefensa/es/consulta/registro.do?id=150407.

33 Nicasio Landa, Memoria sobre la alimentación del soldado, necesidad de mejorarla y reglas que deben observarse para la confección de los ranchos en guarnición y en campaña, Imprenta de Manuel Álvarez, Madrid, 1859.

34 See Juan Iturralde y Suit, “Apuntes necrológicos, el doctor Landa”, Euskal-Erria: Revista Bascongada, Vol. 24, 1891, pp. 341–342.

35 See e.g. Pablo La Porte, “‘Rien à ajouter’: The League of Nations and the Rif War (1921–1926)”, European History Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 1, 2011, p. 66; Nathaniel Berman, “The Appeals of the Orient: Colonized Desire and the War of the Riff”, in Karen Knop (ed.), Gender and Human Rights, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004, p. 195.

36 Joan Serrallonga Urquidi, “La guerra de África (1859–1860): Una revision”, Ayer, Vol. 29, 1998, p. 157.

37 Oscar Gonzalez Garcia, “El vapor de ruedas ‘Cid’: De pionero de la navegación comercial a vapor a primer vapor hospital”, Sanidad Militar: Revista de Sanidad de las Fuerzas Armadas de Espana, Vol. 72, No. 3, 2016, p. 243.

38 See e.g. Matthew Craven, “Between Law and History: The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 and the Logic of Free Trade”, London Review of International Law, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2015, p. 31.

39 Nicasio Landa, La campaña de Marruecos: Memorias de un medico militar, Imprenta de Manuel Alvarez, Madrid, 1860.

40 Ibid., p. 81.

41 Ibid., pp. 48, 49, 53, 63, 64. See also J. R. Navarro Carballo, above note 31, pp. 470–472.

42 Ibid., pp. 97–98.

43 For details, see J. R. Navarro Carballo, above note 31, p. 360.

44 Nicasio Landa, Viaje a las Islas Canarias [A Trip to the Canary Islands], Imprenta de El Correo de Navarra, Pamplona, 1863.

45 J. R. Navarro Carballo, above note 31, p. 469. See references to different translations that Landa made of materials related to military medicine from foreign languages, below notes 61 and 131, and also a reference to his prologue to the first translation of Edgar Allan Poe's works in Spanish, below note 139.

46 Landa's interventions can be found in Compte rendu de la Conférence internationale réunie à Genève les 26, 27, 28 et 29 octobre 1863 pour étudier les moyens de pourvoir à l'insuffisance du service sanitaire dans les armées en campagne, 2nd ed., ICRC, Geneva, supplement to Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, No. 137, 1904, pp. 34–41, 63, 64, 69, 72, 74, 78, 84, 85, 88, 91, 97, 101, 103, 104–105, 113. Landa also provided a review of the Conference in Nicasio Landa, “La conferencia internacional de Ginebra”, Revista de Sanidad Militar Española y Extranjera, Vol. 1, 1864, p. 10.

47 Compte rendu, above note 46, p. 35 (“L'aspect d'un champ de bataille est un de ces tableaux qu'il faut voir pour s'en faire une idée juste”).

48 Landa's suggestion was adopted in the second recommendation of the Geneva Conference. See “Resolutions of the Geneva International Conference, Geneva, 26–29 October 1863”, Recommendation (b), available at: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/geneva-res-1863/recommendations?activeTab=undefined.

49 M. S. G. Enrich, “Histoire de la croix rouge en Espagne”, Bulletin International des Sociétes de Secours aux Militaires Blesses, No. 23, 1875, pp. 126–127.

50 Landa was appointed by Royal Decree on 2 October 1963. On his report, see further J. R. Navarro Carballo, above note 31, pp. 472–473.

51 M. S. G. Enrich, above note 49.

52 “Asociación internacional de socorro a heridos en campaña de mar y tierra”, Real Decreto de Su Majestad la Reina Doña Isabel II, 6 July 1864.

53 Eduardo de No Louis, “L'Espagne et le droit humanitaire de la guerre: Quelques considerations”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 49, No. 577, 1967, pp. 5–7.

54 Ibid., p. 10.

55 Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field, 22 August 1864, available at: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/gc-1864?activeTab=historical.

56 Max Huber, “La Croix-Rouge et l'évolution du droit international”, in Max Huber, La pensée et l'action de la Croix-Rouge, ICRC, Geneva, 1954, p. 34.

57 J. R. Navarro Carballo, above note 31, p. 476.

58 Nicasio Landa, El mandil de socorro, Imprenta de Munoz Sabater, Pamplona, 1865.

59 Nicasio Landa, El transporte de heridos y enfermos por vías férreas y navegables: Hospitales flotantes, trenes y hospitales, Imprenta de Alejandro Gómez Fontenebro, Madrid, 1866.

60 Conférences internationales a Paris: Sociétés de secours aux blessés militaires des armées de terre et de mer, 1867, Commission Générale des Délégués, 1867, available at: https://library.icrc.org/library/docs/AF/AF_1552_01.pdf.

61 Nicasio Landa, “Informe sobre la organizacion sanitaria del ejercito suizo”, Revista de Sanidad Militar y General de Ciencias Medicas, Vol. 4, 1867.

62 N. Landa, above note 10.

63 Nicasio Landa, El derecho de la guerra conforme a la moral, 2nd ed., El Correo Militar, Madrid, 1870; Nicasio Landa, El derecho de la guerra conforme a la moral, 3rd ed., Murillo, Madrid, 1877, available at: https://bvpb.mcu.es/es/consulta/registro.cmd?id=443443.

64 N. Landa, 3rd ed., above note 63, p. 42. This reference is also present in the first edition of El derecho de la guerra, above note 10, and thus predates the 1868 St Petersburg Declaration Renouncing the Use, in Time of War, of Explosive Projectiles Under 400 Grammes Weight, 29 November/11 December 1868. See also Jon Arrizabalaga, “Acción humanitaria y derecho de guerra: Las contribuciones de Nicasio Landa (1830–1891)”, in Ignacio Suay Matallana, Carmel Ferragud, Josepl Barona Vilar and José Ramón Bertomeu Sánchez (eds), Ciencia, medicina y ley, XVIII Congreso de la Sociedad Española de Historia de la Medicina, Valencia, 2022, p. 243.

65 N. Landa, 3rd ed., above note 63, p. 12.

66 Ibid., p. 9.

67 Ibid., pp. 9–10, 12.

68 Immanuel Kant's Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht was first published in the Berlinische Monatsschrift IV, 11 November 1784. See further e.g. Martti Koskenniemi, “On the Idea and Practice for Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose”, in Bindu Puri and Heiko Sievers (eds), Terror, Peace and Universalism: Essays on the Philosophy of Immanuel Kant, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2007, p. 122.

69 N. Landa, 3rd ed., above note 63, pp. 13–14. See also J. R. Navarro Carballo, above note 31, p. 477–478.

70 N. Landa, 3rd ed., above note 63, p. 15.

71 Ibid., pp. 15–16.

72 N. Landa, note above 10.

73 Francis Lieber, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, General Order No. 100, 24 April 1863 (Lieber Code), available at: https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lieber.asp.

74 Johann Kaspar Bluntschli, Le droit international codifié, trans. M. C. Lardy, Librairie de Guillaumin, Paris, 1872.

75 Johann Kaspar Bluntschli, Das moderne Kriegsrecht der civilisirten Staaten, 2nd ed., C. H. Beck, Nördlingen, 1872. This is the largely expanded edition of Johann Kaspar Bluntschli, Das moderne Kriegsrecht der zivilisierten Staaten: Als Rechtsbuch dargestellt, 1st ed., Nördlingen, C. H. Beck, 1866.

76 Adam Roberts, “Foundational Myths in the Laws of War: The 1863 Lieber Code, and the 1864 Geneva Convention”, Melbourne Journal of International Law, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2019, p. 158.

77 See above note 75.

78 Gustave Rolin-Jaequemyns, “El derecho de la guerra conforme a la moral, por el doctor Nicasio Landa”, Revue de Droit International et Legislation Comparee, Vol. 9, 1877, p. 431.

79 Edwin Montefiore Bochard and Thomas Waverly Palmer, The U.S. Library of Congress’ Guide to the Law and Legal Literature of Spain, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, 1915, p. 132.

80 Concepción Arenal, Ensayo sobre el derecho de gentes, Imprenta de la Revista de legislación, Madrid, 1879. Its Chapter VIII is over 120 pages long (pp. 77–200). For a detailed analysis, see Ignacio de la Rasilla, “Concepción Arenal and the Place of Women in Modern International Law”, Tijdschrift Voor Rechtsgeschiedenis, Vol. 88, No. 1–2, 2020, p. 211.

81 Spanish Red Cross, “¿Quién fue Concepción Arenal y por qué su figura es tan importante?”, 8 March 2023, available at: www2.cruzroja.es/web/ahora/-/quien-fue-concepcion-arenal.

82 See, further, Jon Arrizabalaga, “The ‘Merciful and Loving Sex’: Concepción Arenal's Narratives on Spanish Red Cross Women's War Relief Work in the 1870s”, Medicine, Conflict and Survival, Vol. 36, No. 1, 2020, p. 41.

83 On de Olivart, see Antonio Blanc Altemir, El Marqués de Olivart y el derecho internacional (1861–1928): Sociedad internacional y aportación científica, Institut d'Estudis Ilerdencs, Lerida, 2000. For further details, see Ignacio de la Rasilla, In the Shadow of Vitoria: A History of International Law in Spain (1770–1953), Brill Nijhoff, Leiden, 2018, pp. 122–123, 148.

84 Marqués de Olivart, Tratado de derecho internacional público y privado, extractado y traducido de las obras de Calvo, Bar, Neumann etc., con extensas notas y un bosquejo del derecho internacional privado español, Fernando Fe, Madrid, 1886.

85 De Olivart's personal library was purchased by the Library of Harvard Law School in 1911. See “The Acquisition of the Olivart Collection by Harvard Law School”, The Green Bag, Vol. 24, 1912, p. 233.

86 Ignacio de Negrin, Tratado elemental de derecho internacional marítimo con varios apéndices que contienen la legislacion interior, los tratados de España y otros documentos, Imprenta de M. Ginesta, Madrid, 1873.

87 “Note par M. d'Olivart sur les publications recentes relatives au droit international parues en Espagne”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 11, 1889–1892, p. 480.

88 See, further, Ignacio de la Rasilla, “El estudio del derecho internacional en el corto siglo XIX español”, Rechtsgeschichte: Legal History, Vol. 21, 2013, p. 48. Also available in English as Ignacio de la Rasilla, “The Study of International Law in the Short Spanish Nineteenth Century”, Chicago-Kent Journal of International and Comparative Law, Vol. 13, No. 2, 2013, p. 122.

89 See e.g. Daniel Palmieri, “To Inform or Govern? 150 Years of the International Review of the Red Cross, 1869–2019”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 100, No. 907–909, 2018, p. 71.

90 Landa used for the journal the title of a pamphlet written in the service of the Red Cross in 1868: Nicasio Landa, “La caridad en la guerra”, G. Estrada, Madrid, 1868. This was translated into Dutch as Nicasio Landa, “Menchenliefde en oorlog”, trans. F. W. N. Suringar, J. van Raalen & Zonen, Rotterdam, 1868.

91 In 1871, Landa's journal was transferred to Madrid, where it kept its original title but adopted the subtitle Boletín Oficial de la Asamblea Española (Official Bulletin of the Spanish Assembly). In 1896 it became La Caridad en la Guerra, and in 1898 it took its definitive title, La Cruz Roja. See V. Lavin and R. Mata (coord.), above note 7.

92 See E. Samaniego Arrillaga, above note 29, pp. 617, 618. See also J. Iturralde y Suit, above note 34, p. 346; M. S. G. Enrich, above note 49, pp. 128–130.

93 Gustave Moynier, “La Convention de Genève pendant la guerre franco-allemande”, Bulletin International des Societes de Secours aux Militaires Blessés, No. 14, 1873, p. 51.

94 Five other Spaniards joined the IDI's ranks throughout the rest of the nineteenth century: Rafael María de Labra y Cadrana (1878), Manuel Torres Campos (1885), Ramón María de Dalmau de Olivart (Marqués de Olivart) (1888), José Maluquer y Salvador (1891) and Vicente Romero y Girón (1891). For the complete list of Spanish members until 2021, see J. C. Fernández Rozas, above note 8, p. 71. Ambassador Ramón Piña y Millet (elected in 1911) and Nicasio Landa remain the two only Spanish IDI members who did not hold a law degree.

95 See ibid., p. 20.

96 The list of thirty-nine original members elected in 1873 is available at: www.idi-iil.org/en/liber-memorialis-1873-2023. See also Peter Macalister-Smith, “Bio-Bibliographical Key to the Membership of the Institut de Droit International 1873–2001”, Journal of the History of International Law, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2003, p. 77.

97 The text of Landa's original letter was published twice by the International Review of the Red Cross, first in 1873 as “Espagne: La guerre civile”, and then in 1953 as “Regards vers le passé”, above note 1.

98 Nicasio Landa, “La charité dans les guerres civiles”, Bulletin International des Sociétes de Secours aux Militaires Blesses, No. 4, 1875, p. 175. This was a translation from Nicasio Landa, “La caridad en las guerras civiles”, La Gaceta Popular, No. 249, 1873.

99 Eyal Benvenisti and Doreen Lustig, “Monopolizing War: Codifying the Laws of War to Reassert Governmental Authority, 1856–1874”, European Journal of International Law, Vol. 31, No. 1, 2020, p. 156, citing N. Landa, “La charité”, above note 98. This tangential reference is one of the very few references to Landa that one may find in recent international legal literature.

100 Comité Central, above note 1, p. 42 (“des precedents de haute valeur, dont il faut se souvenir pour les invoquer au besoin dans des circonstances analogues”).

101 For details, see J. J. Viñes, above note 8.

102 See e.g. “Extrait du procès-verbal de la 4e séance plénière, tenue à Turin le 48 septembre 1882, sous la présidence de M. Pierantoni” (with a mention of Landa's assistance to the “Projet de règlement international des prises maritimes (Rapporteur M. de Bulmerincq)”), Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 6, 1882–83, p. 178.

103 “Rapport de M. Landa sur la litterature recent du droit international en Espagne”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 3–4, 1879–80, p. 148.

104 “Nouveau code pénal militaire espagnol: Communication de M. de Landa”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 8, 1885–86, p. 293.

105 E. de No Louis, above note 53, pp. 3–4.

106 Radio Television Española, above note 27.

107 “Manuel des lois de la guerre sur terre: Les lois de la guerre sur terre: Manuel publié par l'Institut de droit international”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 5, 1881–82, p. 157. See also “Rapport de M. Moynier”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 5, 1881–82, p. 251; Nicasio Landa, “La Universidad de Oxford: Artículo del 11 de setiembre del presente año, publicado por don Nicasio Landa, describiéndola, i haciendo un breve resúmen de las tareas del Instituto del Derecho Internacional”, Anales de la Universidad de Chile, Vol. 57, 1880, p. 688.

108 “Réglementation des lois et coutumes de la guerre: Droit international des chemins de fer, des télégraphes et des téléphones en cas de guerre”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 9, 1887–88, p. 13. See also “Rapport of M. Moynier”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 10, 1888–89, p. 206 (noting Landa's contributions, pp. 218–219)

109 See, generally, Rygiel Philippe, “Does International Law Matter? The Institut de Droit International and the Regulation of Migrations before the First World War”, Journal of Migration History, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2015, p. 1.

110 Nicasio Landa, “Droit penal de la guerre: Project de classification des crimes et délits contre les lois de la guerre, selon la déclaration de Bruxelles”, Revue de droit international et de législation comparée, Vol. 10, 1878, pp. 182–184.

111 Ibid.

112 “Dixième commission d’études – Mesures de police sanitaire internationale. Rapporteur: M. de Landa”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 9, 1888, p. 314.

113 “Onzième commission – Mesures de police sanitaire internationale”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 10, 1888–89, p. 251.

114 Ibid., p. 253.

115 Ibid., pp. 253–256

116 Ibid., p. 257.

117 W. F. Bynum “Policing Hearts of Darkness: Aspects of the International Sanitary Conferences”, History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, Vol. 15, No. 3, 1993, p. 422.

118 “Dixième commission d’études”, above note 112, p. 314. See, further, an exposition of the founding principles of the IDI in “Fondation de l'institut de droit international”, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, No. 18, 1874, p. 99.

119 Protocoles et Procès-verbaux de la Conférence sanitaire internationale de Venise inaugurée le 5 janvier 1892, Impr. Nationale de J. Bertero, Rome, 1892.

120 David P. Fidler, “From International Sanitary Conventions to Global Health Security: The New International Health Regulations”, Chinese Journal of International Law, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2005, p. 330.

121 Ibid., p. 329.

122 A. R. Houston, “Applying Lessons from the Past in Haiti: Cholera, Scientific Knowledge, and the Longest-Standing Principle of International Health Law”, in Mark Eccleston-Turner and Iain Brassington (eds), Infectious Diseases in the New Millennium, Springer Nature, Cham, 2020, p. 82.

123 “Conclusions adoptées par la conférence sanitaire internationale de Rome (1885) (communiquées par M. de Landa)”, Annuaire de l'Institut de Droit International, Vol. 8, 1885–86, p. 233. The second and third international sanitary conventions, which were approved in Dresde in 1893 and Paris in 1894 respectively, focused in turn on “keeping ‘Asiatic cholera’ out of Europe”. Soon afterwards, States began setting up international health organizations at the regional level, beginning with the Pan-American Sanitary Bureau in Washington in 1902, which is considered the world's first international public health organization. In 1907, the establishment of the Office Internationale d'Hygiene Publique in Paris marked the founding of the world's first universal health organization. See D. P. Fidler, above note 120.

124 For a detailed account, see J. J. Viñes, above note 8, pp. 121–203.

125 See e.g. Jon Arrizabalaga and Juan Carlos Garcia Reyes, “Innovación tecnológica y humanitarismo en el traslado de heridos de guerra: El informe de Nicasio Landa sobre un nuevo sistema de suspensión elástica de camillas (Pamplona, 29 mayo 1875)”, Revista História, Ciências, Saúde – Manguinhos, Vol. 23, No. 3, 2016, p. 887.

126 J. R. Navarro Carballo, above note 31.

127 M. Torres Campos, above note 2, p. 77.

128 Including Nicasio Landa, Estudios sobre táctica de sanidad militar del servicio sanitario en la batalla, Imprenta Alejandro Gomez Fuentenebro, Madrid, 1880; Nicasio Landa, El servicio sanitario en el sitio y defensa de plazas, Servicio Tipografico de Ricardo Fe, Madrid, 1887.

129 Landa was the representative of Spain at the International Sanitary Conference in Vienna in 1874 and the Conference of Military Health in Paris in 1878. See M. Torres Campos, above note 1, p. 78.

130 Troisième Conférence internationale des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge tenue à Genève du 1er au 6 septembre 1884: Compte rendu, 1884, available at: https://library.icrc.org/library/docs/CI/CI_1884_RAPPORT.pdf.

131 Nicasio Landa, “La academia de sanidad militar de Netley”, Gaceta de Sanidad Militar, Vol. 6, No. 139, 1880, p. 505.

132 Landa and the Argentinian Carlos Calvo (1824–1906) were also the IDI's only native Spanish-speakers until the appointment of Rafael María de Labra (1840–1918) to the IDI in 1878. De Labra was a noted campaigner for the abolition of slavery in the remnants of former Spanish empire in the Americas. See e.g. Rafael María de Labra, La abolición de la esclavitud en el orden económico, Sociedad Abolicionista Española, Imprenta de J. Noguera, Madrid, 1873.

133 Other than those mentioned above, see also “La trousse Landa pour le premier pansement”, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, No. 20, 1874, p. 223.

134 M. S. G. Enrich, above note 49, p. 128 (“On ne peut faire l'histoire de l'origine et du developpement de la section espagnole sans rencontrer a chaque instant le nom du docteur Landa”).

135 A list of Landa's nineteen decorations, including nine of civil character and ten military ones, of which five are from foreign countries, is included in J. R. Navarro Carballo, above note 31, pp. 360–361.

136 José Javier Viñes, “El Dr. D. Nicasio Landa, médico oficial en la epidemia de cólera de 1854–1855”, Anales del Sistema Sanitario de Navarra, Vol. 23, No. 1, 2000, p. 85.

137 See e.g. Nicasio Landa, Los primeros cristianos de Pompeiolopis: Leyenda de San Fermin, Imprenta de Joaquin Lorda, Pamplona, 1882; Nicasio Landa, “Una visión en la niebla: Los guerreros euskaldunas”, Euskal-Erria: Revista Bascongada, Vol. 13, 1885, p. 517.

138 Edgard Allen Poe, Historias estraordinarias precedidas de un prólogo crítico biografico por el Doctor Landa, Imprenta de Luis Garcia, Madrid, 1858. See, further, Pedro Salinas, “Poe in Spain and Spanish America”, in Poe in Foreign Lands and Tongues: A Symposium at the nineteenth annual commemoration of the Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore, January 1941, available at: www.eapoe.org/PAPERS/psblctrs/pl19411.htm.

139 “Landa Alvarez de Carballo, Nicasio”, Gran Enciclopedia de Navarra, available at: www.enciclopedianavarra.com/?page_id=12639.

140 See e.g. Gil, P. Ozcáriz, “Nicasio Landa y su aportación a la Historia Antigua de Navarra: Sobre la lectura y transcripción de las inscripciones romanas de Gastiáin”, Cuadernos de Arqueología de la Universidad de Navarra, Vol. 21, 2013, p. 335Google Scholar.

141 See e.g. Landa, Nicasio, “Datos sobre el Arte Cristiano de Navarra”, Euskal-Erria: Revista Bascongada, Vol. 18, 1888, p. 218Google Scholar; Landa, Nicasio, “Reseña histórica del valle y Universidad de Lana”, Revista del Antiguo Reino de Navarra, Vol. 1, 1888, p. 157Google Scholar.

142 Including the Memorial de Sanidad (see above note 32) and La Caridad en la Guerra (see above note 91). Landa also served as director of the Revista Euskara from 1878 to 1883.

143 J. J. Viñes, above note 8.

144 Diez, Javier Aztarain, El nacimiento y consolidación de la asistencia psiquiátrica en Navarra, 1868–1954, Government of Navarra, Pamplona, 2006, p. 111Google Scholar (annexing Nicasio Landa, Proyecto de un manicomio agrícola del Doctor Nicasio Landa, 1868), available at: https://tinyurl.com/u7wzbcun.

145 See V. Lavin and R. Mata (coord.), above note 7. See also Angel Roman, “Landa, El Dunant español”, Cruz Roja, July 1989, p. 13.

146 O'Donoghue, Aoife, “Bluntschli, C'est Moi? International Legal History and Hagiography”, Transnational Legal Theory, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2024, p. 67Google Scholar.

147 Peters, Anne and Sparks, Tom (eds), The Individual in International Law: History and Theory, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2024CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

148 I. de la Rasilla, note above 80, p. 211.

149 C. Arenal, above note 80, p. 108 (“Landa, uno de los hombres más humanos que han recorrido los campos de batalla”). For a parallel between the collaboration of Arenal and Landa as pioneers of health social work in the late nineteenth century in Spain and the emergence of health social work in the early twentieth century through the collaboration of Richard Cabot and Ida Cannon at Massachusetts General Hospital, see Goldaracena, Francisco Idareta, “Concepción Arenal: Pionera del trabajo social sanitario en España”, Áreas: Revista Internacional de Ciencias Sociales, Vol. 44, 2023, p. 119Google Scholar.