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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 September 2025

Kathryn Chelminski
Kathryn Chelminski
Affiliation:
Brown University, Rhode Island

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Type
Chapter
Information
Governing Energy Transitions
A Study of Regime Complex Effectiveness on Geothermal Development in Indonesia and the Philippines
 , pp. 217 - 222
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2025
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NCCreative Common License - ND
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

Note: Page numbers in bold indicate tables or figures.

26/41 Commitment (Indonesian emissions reduction pledge), 1, 75–77, 90, 167
Agence Française de Développement (AFD), 101
Alam, Dipo, 76
Alcaraz, Arturo Pineda, 130, 141, 143, 158, 167, 171
Asian Development Bank (ADB), 85, 87, 100, 101, 106, 150
ADB Energy Transition Mechanism, 86, 178
Australia, 53
Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional (BAPPENAS), 2, 66, 76, 115, 117
Bali, Indonesia, 116
Bali Plan of Action, 52
barriers to energy capacity development in Indonesia, 68–69, 187
barriers to geothermal development in Indonesia, 102–117
financial, 97–98, 102–109, 121
regulatory, 98, 109–112
sociocultural, 98, 112–116, 129
technical, 98, 116–117
barriers to geothermal development in Philippines, 133–140
financial, 134, 140, 149–150, 151–152, 156
regulatory, 133–136, 134, 138–139
sociocultural, 133–138, 134
technical, 133, 134, 139–140
Bataan Nuclear Power Plant, Philippines, 145
Bedugal geothermal project, Indonesia, 116
bilateral development aid, 20, 25, 58, 77–78, 86, 107, 118, 144, 153
binary turbine technology, 8
biomass energy, 63, 81, 87, 104
blackouts, 74, 145
Brazil, 5
C40 Cities initiative, 51
capacity-building mechanism
defined, 13, 62
and domestic blocking factors, 39
and effectiveness of clean energy regime complex, 162, 168–169, 176, 178, 184
effects of, 30, 35–36
and geothermal development, 95–96, 125
and geothermal development in Philippines, 155, 157
technical capacity building in Indonesia, 78–81, 89, 91
carbon lock-in, 7, 171
Catholic Church, 134, 135, 147
Chevron, 139
China, 5
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of UNFCCC, 35, 46, 103–105, 121, 124–125, 151–152, 163, 166–167
clean energy
barriers to development, 6–7
defined, 6
Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM), 54–55
clean energy regime complex, 11
Indonesia’s participation in, 74–81
clean energy regime complex, effectiveness of, 161–176
development aid comparison across three periods, 173–175
and domestic political interests, 162, 169–172, 184
and policy advising, 162
and social learning mechanism, 161–162, 165–68
and technical capacity building, 162, 168–69
and utility modifier mechanism, 161–162, 163–65
clean energy regime complex, history of, 42–60
Period 1 (1980–2001), 45–49
Period 2 (2002–2008), 49–54
Period 3 (2009–2023), 54–59
Clean Technology Fund (CTF), 60, 103, 105–106, 163
climate activism, 54
Climate Investment Funds (CIF), 54, 57, 60
climate justice norms, 57–58, 178–179
Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN), 47, 56, 80
coal, 8, 87
in Indonesia, 65, 70–73, 83–84, 86
in Philippines, 147, 167
common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR), 5
community relations, 116, 126
Competitive Renewable Energy Zones (CREZ) process, 151
ComVol (Philippine Institute of Volcanology), 141
conferences, international, 50–51
COP. See UN Climate Conference of Parties
corruption, 38–39
in Indonesia, 17, 69, 72–73, 110–112, 127
in Philippines, 145
Cusi, Alfonso G., 139
decentralization, in Indonesia (Reformasi), 67, 99–100
decoupling, 2, 49, 58
deforestation, 1, 2, 65, 75
Denmark, 55
development aid, 17, 89. See also financial barriers to geothermal development
climate change mitigation aid (OECD), 77–78
comparison of, 173–175
and effectiveness of clean energy regime complex, 164, 184
for geothermal, 101–102, 117–120, 153–155
domestic political interests
and effectiveness of clean energy regime complex, 162, 169–172, 184
and effectiveness of regime complexes, 36–38, 39, 179
and geothermal development, 125–128, 152, 158–59
earthquakes, risk of, 96, 110, 115
EBTKE (Directorate of Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation, Indonesia), 2, 65, 76, 79
effectiveness of regime complexes. See clean energy regime complex, effectiveness of; regime complexes, effectiveness of
Electricity Power Reform Act (EPIRA, 2001, Philippines), 146
electricity prices, 140, 146
electrification, 63, 81
emerging markets and developing economies (EMDEs). See also specific countries
clean energy investments in, 5
energy transitions in, 3–4, 24, 30
geothermal potential in, 9
and technical capacity, 35–36
technology adoption in, 6
emissions
26/41 Commitment, 1, 75–77, 90, 167
decoupling of growth from, 2, 49, 58
in Indonesia, 1–2, 65
emissions reduction credits (ERCs), 104, 105
energy crises
in Indonesia, 79, 101, 126
oil, 131, 142, 159, 170–171, 174
in Philippines, 131, 144–145
Energy Development Corporation (EDC) [Philippines], 135, 137–138, 143, 145, 152
energy security
defined, 4
in Indonesia, 90–91
in Philippines, 131
and policy change, 127
energy transitions
and geothermal technology, 7–9
global governance of, 10–14
requirements for, 4–7
en.lighten initiative, 79
Environmental and Social Framework (ESF) due diligence, 112–113
European Union (EU), 48, 51–52
exploration drilling (geothermal), 102, 103, 108–109, 150, 186
feed-in tariffs, 84–85, 140, 148, 170, 186
finance flows, 52, 53, 58–59, 153–155, 164–165, 173–175
financial barriers to geothermal development, 186
in Indonesia, 97–98, 102–109, 121
in Philippines, 134, 140, 149–150, 151–152, 156
forests, 65, 109–110, 139
fossil fuel subsidies
in Indonesia, 66, 70, 72–73
and social learning, 34
G8 summits, 51–52, 75
G20 summits
2009, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1–2, 74, 75
2021, Bali, Indonesia, 3, 85
geographical barriers to geothermal development, 69, 187
geothermal development in Indonesia. See Indonesia, geothermal development in
geothermal development in Philippines. See Philippines, geothermal development in
geothermal energy development
legal definition of, 109
negative impacts of, 110
Geothermal Energy Upstream Development Project (GEUDP), 108, 121
Geothermal Fund Facility, 106–107
Geothermal Law No. 27 (2003, Indonesia), 100–102, 109, 124, 166
Geothermal Law No. 30 (2014, Indonesia), 102, 109, 111, 124, 127, 166
geothermal policy recommendations, 185–188
Geothermal Resource De-Risking Facility (GRDF), 150
Geothermal Resource Risk Mitigation Project (GREM), 94, 103, 108, 121
geothermal technology, 7–9
drilling technologies in, 8–9, 188
financial barriers to, 9
land needs of, 8
Germany, 48, 50, 52, 55, 101
The Geysers (geothermal power plant, California), 8
Global Environment Facility (GEF), 79, 101, 108
global governance of energy transitions, 10–14
Global Renewable Energy Policies and Measures Database, 56
Global Status Report on Renewables (REN21), 51
governance, global, 10–14. See also transnational governance
governance, national. See Indonesia, governance of; Philippines, governance of
Grindley, George W., 141
Habibie, B. J., 99–100
hydropower, 81, 83, 84, 87, 104, 149
India, 5
Indigenous peoples
land rights, 112–114, 133–134, 136–138, 150–151, 183
protests against geothermal projects, 116, 126
Indonesia
carbon emissions, 1–2, 65
coal production in, 65, 70–71, 73
as comparative case study, 14–18
development aid, 17
economic status of, 63–65
energy access in, 63
energy consumption rates, 16
energy efficiency lighting policies, 78–80
energy mix, 70–71, 81–83, 87
energy supply, 16
energy transition goals, 1–3
Fast Track programs, 2, 71, 74, 83
geothermal energy capacity, 14–15, 17, 96–97
and Just Energy Transition Partnership (JETP), 85–88
maps, 64, 99
oil production in, 65
participation in clean energy regime complex, 74–81
standards and labeling policies, 78–79
Indonesia, comparison with Philippines case, 161–176
and capacity-building mechanism, 168–69
and social learning mechanism, 165–68
and utility modifier mechanism, 163–65
Indonesia, geothermal development in, 93–129
barriers to, 93–94, 97–98, 98, 102–110, 112
and capacity building mechanism, 95–96, 125
case description, 96–97
clean energy regime complex’s impacts on, 94–95, 120–121
contestation of, 114–116, 126–127
corruption in tendering, 110–112, 127
and domestic political interests, 125–128
financing trends, 117–120, 121–122
Period 1: history of (1972–2007), 98–101
Period 2: international support for (2008–2014), 101–102
Period 3: overcoming barriers to, 102–117
and resettlement norms, 112–114
and social learning mechanism, 95, 96, 123–125
technical capacity building, 116–117
and utility modifier mechanism, 95, 121–123
Indonesia, governance of
35,000 MW Plan (2014), 2, 71, 83–84
Blueprint of National Energy Management, 79, 81, 83
decentralization, 67, 99–100
Directorate of Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation (EBTKE), 2, 65, 76, 79
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR), 2, 65, 66, 72, 76, 79, 84–85, 108–109, 115, 117
Ministry of Finance, 65, 66
National Action Plan on Emission Reduction, 2, 76
National Climate Change Council, 2, 75
National Council of Climate Change, 80
National Development Planning Agency (BAPPENAS), 2, 66, 76, 115, 117
National Electricity Plan (Rencana Umum Ketenagalistrikan [RUKN]), 81, 83, 84
National Energy Conservation Master Plan, 79, 82
National Energy Council, 65–66, 82
National GHG Inventory, 2, 76
National Mid-Term Development Plan, 83
Oil and Gas Task Force, 72–73
Indonesia, laws/regulations of, 82–83
and climate change considerations, 75, 76
and energy conservation, 79–80
and energy development planning, 81
and geothermal development, 99, 106
Geothermal Law No. 27 (2003), 100–102, 109, 124, 166
Geothermal Law No. 30 (2014), 102, 109, 111, 124, 127, 166
and land use, 68
and power generation sector, 66–67
and renewable energy development, 84
Indonesia, regulatory evolution of renewable energy in, 61–92
case description, 63–65
major players in energy sector, 65–67
Period 1: legacy of oil production, 69–73, 89
Period 2: rising salience of climate change and emissions reduction, 74–81, 89
Period 3: shifting political will, 81–88, 89
transition opportunities and challenges, 67–69
Indonesian Geothermal Association, 111
interagency coordination, 184–185
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), 101, 104
International Energy Agency (IEA), 4, 87
on clean energy investments in EMDEs, 5
criticisms of, 47
membership of, 55
role of, 56
Working Party on Renewable Energy, 45, 47
International Partners Group (IPG), 3, 85
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 10, 50, 51, 55, 56
Japan, 76, 87, 144
Japanese Investment Corporation Agency (JICA), 69, 101, 102–103, 106, 163
Java, Indonesia, 69, 115, 187
Johannesburg Renewable Energy Coalition (JREC), 49, 51
Jokowi. See Widodo, Joko (Jokowi), administration of
Just Energy Transition Partnership (JETP), 3, 58, 60, 85–88
just transition norms, 114, 126, 178–179, 181, 183, 187–188
KfW (German development bank), 101, 106, 107
Kingston, Reynolds, Thom and Allardice (KRTA), 143
Kyoto Protocol, 43, 46, 48–49, 75
Lahendong II geothermal project, Indonesia, 101, 104, 163
land rights, 112–114, 136–137
laws and regulations. See Indonesia, laws/regulations of
leadership, political
Alcaraz, 130, 141, 143, 158, 167, 171
Malixi, 131, 145, 158, 171
Prayitno, 100, 126, 171
Velasco, 143
Yudhoyono, 1, 73, 75–76, 172
Leyte geothermal project, Philippines, 137, 145
lighting, energy efficiency in, 78–80
Major Economies Process on Energy Security and Climate Change (later Major Economies Forum for Energy and Climate), 51, 54
Malixi, Pabling V., 131, 145, 158, 171
Marcos, Ferdinand, Jr. “Bongbong,” 132
Marcos, Ferdinand, Sr., regime of, 142–143, 171
marine biodiversity, 180–181
methodology, 18–20
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 47–48
mining, 109. See also coal
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR) of Indonesia, 2, 65, 66, 72, 76, 79, 84–85, 108–109, 115, 117
Mt. Apo geothermal project, Mindanao, Philippines, 137
multilateral and bilateral support, in Philippines, 153, 160
multilateral development banks, 57, 58, 101, 173
multilateral processes, failures of, 45–49, 52
Nasulo geothermal project, Philippines, 138, 151–152
National Geothermal Association of the Philippines (NGAP), 140, 150
National Geothermal Capacity Building Program, 115
National Power Corporation of the Philippines, 142, 143, 144–145
natural disasters, 96, 110, 115
Netherlands, the, 101, 104, 115
net zero, 4–8, 12
definitions, 4–5
Indonesia’s 2050 plan, 3, 81–83, 86, 87
Kyoto Protocol, 43, 46, 48–49, 75
Paris Agreement, 4–5, 6, 44, 54
New Zealand, 98–99, 101, 143, 151, 157
New Zealand Geological Survey, 141
NIPAS Act (1992, Philippines), 135–136
non-binding agreements, and effectiveness of regime complexes, 29
norm diffusion
and Indonesia’s participation, 2, 74–78, 80
just transition norms, 114, 126, 178–179, 181, 183, 187–188
resettlement norms, 112–114
and social learning, 34
oil crisis (1973), 131, 142, 159, 170–171, 174
oil production, in Indonesia, 65, 69–73
opportunity for change, and political will, 13–14, 127, 171–72
opportunity matrix, 14
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 45, 77
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Indonesia’s exit from, 1, 70, 76
palm oil, 65
Paris Agreement, 4–5, 6, 44, 54
permitting process, 186–187
Pertamina (Indonesian national oil company)
fuel subsidies, 66
and geothermal development, 99, 107
oil theft, 72
Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN), 65, 66–67, 82, 85
and coal production, 71
and financial barriers to geothermal development, 102–103
and geothermal development, 104, 107
Petral (Pertamina’s oil trading arm), 72–73
Philippine Geothermal, 142
Philippine Institute of Volcanology (ComVol), 141
Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC), 135, 137–138, 143
Philippines
as comparative case study, 14–18
constitution of, 136, 139
development aid, 17
energy capacity, 131, 144
energy mix, 131, 133
energy security in, 170–171
energy supply, 16, 133
foreign ownership in, 138–139, 148
geothermal energy capacity, 14–15, 17, 140, 149
map, 132
Philippines, comparison with Indonesia case, 161–176
and capacity-building mechanism, 168–69
and social learning mechanism, 165–68
and utility modifier mechanism, 163–65
Philippines, geothermal development in, 130–160
barriers to, 133–140, 149
and capacity-building mechanism, 155, 157
case description, 131–132
clean energy regime complex’s impacts on, 153–160
contestation of, 134, 136–138
Green Energy Auction Program (GEAP), 149–150
history of, 141–152
Period 1: international financing, 144–147
Period 2: lobbying for reform, 147–148
Period 3: industry ups and downs, 149–152
and social learning mechanism, 156–157
and utility modifier mechanism, 153–156
Philippines, governance of
Bureau of Mines, 141
Department of Energy (DOE), 137, 149, 151
Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 135
Energy Regulatory Commission, 146
Environment Management Bureau, 135
Independent Power Producer Framework, 145–146
National Commission on Indigenous Peoples, 136, 137
Power Sector Assets & Liabilities Management Corporation, 146
Renewable Energy Coalition, 167
Renewable Energy Commission, 147–148, 157
Retail Competition and Open Access Model, 146
Philippines, laws/regulations of, 135–136, 142, 143, 145, 146
Renewable Energy Act (2008), 139, 148, 167
PLN. See Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN) (Indonesia’s state-owned electricity utility)
policy advising
and effectiveness of clean energy regime complex, 162, 182
and geothermal development in Indonesia, 95, 109, 118, 122–125, 128, 129
and geothermal development in Philippines, 153, 155, 156–157, 159
geothermal policy recommendations, 185–188
impacts of, 39, 164, 165–168, 173, 175, 182, 184
and renewable energy policy adoption in Indonesia, 89
policy windows, 13–14
political will, 177–178
and opportunity for change, 13–14, 127, 171–72
Prayitno, Irwan, 100, 126, 171
privatization of Philippine power sector, 146–147, 159
PT Pertamina Geothermal, 104, 105
PT Sarana Multi Infrastruktur, 108
PT Supreme Energy, 105–106, 115–116, 163
Pusat Investasi Pemerintah (PIP), 106–107
Rantau Dedap geothermal project, Indonesia, 105–106, 163
regime complexes. See also clean energy regime complex
actors in, 25–26
complexity of, 25
defined, 25
regime complexes, effectiveness of, 11–14, 24–41. See also clean energy regime complex, effectiveness of
approaches to, 27, 176, 179, 180–181
defined, 28–29
and domestic political interests, 36–38, 39, 179
further research opportunities, 180–182
mechanisms of, 29–36, 40–41, 180–181
and overcoming technology and policy lock-in, 38–40
overlapping institutions, 10–11, 24–26, 29, 44, 67–69, 185
policy implications, 182–183
regime complex literature, 11–14, 27–29
regime complex lock-in matrix, 171–72, 180
regimes, 10, 11, 28, 168. See also clean energy regime complex
regulatory barriers to geothermal development, 186–187
in Indonesia, 98, 109–112
in Philippines, 133–136, 134, 138–139
Renewable Energy Act (2008, Philippines), 139, 148, 167
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP), 49–50
Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), 50–51
rent-seeking, 110, 127, 170
defined, 39
resettlement process, 112–114
risk-sharing facilities, 108, 121, 124, 150, 186
Said, Sudirman, 73
social learning mechanism
defined, 13, 62
and domestic blocking factors, 39
and effectiveness of clean energy regime complex, 161–162, 165–68, 176, 178, 184
effects of, 30, 33–34
and geothermal development, 95, 96, 123–125, 129
and geothermal development in Philippines, 148, 156–157
and Indonesia’s participation, 74–78, 80, 88, 89–90
and regulatory reform, 111–112
and restructuring of Philippine power sector, 146
sociocultural barriers to geothermal development, 187–188
in Indonesia, 98, 112–116, 129
in Philippines, 133–138, 134
solar power, 8, 81, 87, 104
South Africa, 58, 85
Spain, 55
Star Energy, 104
state-owned enterprises (SOEs), 65–66, 97. See also Pertamina; Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN)
Suharto regime, 71, 100, 142, 171
Sumatra, Indonesia, 69, 115
Sustainable Development Goals, 54
Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All) initiative, 10, 35, 57, 80
tax credits, 186
technical capacity building
and effectiveness of clean energy regime complex, 162, 168–169, 176, 184
funding for, 162
further research opportunities, 182
and geothermal development, 129
and geothermal development in Philippines, 155, 157
in Indonesia, 78–81, 116–117, 125
technology and policy lock-in, 38–40
tendering, corruption in, 110–112, 127
Tiwi geothermal project, Philippines, 141
transnational governance, 11, 25–26, 35, 37
and geothermal development in Philippines, 160
partnering with intergovernmental organizations, 57
rise of, 44, 49–53, 174
United Kingdom (UK), 49, 52
UN Climate Conference of Parties (COP)
COP-7, 46–47
COP-13 (2007, Bali, Indonesia), 1, 52, 74, 75
COP-14 (2008, Poznan, Poland), 47, 75
COP-19, 47
COP-21 (2015, Paris, France), 44
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 87, 141
United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), 32, 49, 79–80
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 43, 46–47, 56
2021 report, 7
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), 35, 46, 103–105, 121, 124–125, 151–152, 163, 166–167
United States, and international climate agreements, 43, 45, 48, 53, 54–55
US Agency for International Development (USAID), 101, 142, 151
US–Indonesia Geothermal Development Initiative, 117
US Trade and Development Agency (USTDA), 101, 117
Unocal (multinational energy company), 142
utility modifier mechanism
defined, 12–13
and domestic blocking factors, 39
and effectiveness of clean energy regime complex, 161–162, 163–65, 176, 178
effects of, 30, 31–33
and geothermal development, 95, 121–123, 129, 153–156
Velasco, Geronimo, 143
Widodo, Joko (Jokowi), administration of, 61, 72, 83–84, 85, 93
wind power, 8, 81, 87
workforce development, 99
Working Party on Renewable Energy (IEA), 45, 47
World Bank, 45–46
and decentralization in Indonesia, 100
Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), 42
and geothermal development, 9, 94, 101–102, 107–108, 137, 146, 152
and Policy Working Group of JETP Indonesia, 87
resettlement programs, 112–114, 137–138
World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 49, 110, 116, 147–148
Yudhoyono, Susilo Bambang (SBY), 1, 73, 75–76, 172

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  • Index
  • Kathryn Chelminski, Brown University, Rhode Island
  • Book: Governing Energy Transitions
  • Online publication: 26 September 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009352604.010
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  • Index
  • Kathryn Chelminski, Brown University, Rhode Island
  • Book: Governing Energy Transitions
  • Online publication: 26 September 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009352604.010
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  • Index
  • Kathryn Chelminski, Brown University, Rhode Island
  • Book: Governing Energy Transitions
  • Online publication: 26 September 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009352604.010
Available formats
×