Hostname: page-component-7b9c58cd5d-g9frx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-03-14T23:52:37.024Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Effect of Neuroleptics on Cognitive and Psychomotor Function

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

David J. King
David J. King*
Affiliation:
Department of Therapeutics and Pharmacology, The Queen's University of Belfast, and Holywell Hospital, Antrim
*
∗Department of Therapeutics and Pharmacology, The Whitla Medical Building, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

There has been great variability and inconsistency in the reported effects of neuroleptic drugs on cognitive and psychomotor function in both patients and normal controls. Experimental design rather than any particular cognitive or psychomotor test appears to have determined the sensitivity of detection of neuroleptic drug effects. In general, sedative phenothiazines have been found to depress psychomotor function and sustained attention, but higher cognitive functions are relatively unaffected. In the majority of studies of schizophrenic patients, both cognitive function and attention improve with neuroleptic treatment, in parallel with clinical recovery. Negative symptoms are not increased and usually show slight improvement with neuroleptic treatment. Controls are more sensitive than schizophrenic patients to neuroleptic drug-induced impairments. Tolerance has been seen in patients but has not been demonstrated in normal volunteers. The way in which neuroleptics produce their beneficial effects in patients remains unknown. Three main hypotheses to replace early arousal theories are proposed: normalisation of attention, facilitated indirectly by suppression of ‘released’ limbic dopamine hyperactivity; normalisation of asymmetrical temporohippocampal function; or direct improvement of attentional processing. Studies of the effects of new antipsychotic drugs with selective actions and the development of more reliable and selective tests of psychomotor and cognitive functions are required.

Type
Review Article
Information
The British Journal of Psychiatry , Volume 157 , Issue 6 , December 1990 , pp. 799 - 811
Copyright
Copyright © The Royal College of Psychiatrists 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, B. G., Reker, D. & Cooper, T. B. (1981) Prolonged adverse effects of haloperidol in normal subjects. New England Journal of Medicine 305, 643–644.Google ScholarPubMed
Andreasen, N. C. (ed.) (1986) Can Schizophrenia be Localized in the Brain? Washington, DC: APA.Google Scholar
Asarnow, R. F., Marder, S. R., Mintz, J., et al (1988) Differential effect of low and conventional doses of fluphenazine on schizophrenic outpatients with good or poor information-processing abilities. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 822–826.Google Scholar
Baldessarini, R. J., Cohen, B. M. & Teicher, M. H. (1988) Significance of neuroleptic dose and plasma level in the pharmacological treatment of psychoses. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 79–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bartfai, A. & Wiesel, FA. (1986) Effect of sulpiride on vigilance in healthy subjects. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 4, 1–5.Google Scholar
Belmaker, R. H. & Wald, D. (1977) Haloperidol in normals. British Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 222–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berger, H. J. C., van Hoof, J. J. M., van Spaendonck, K. P. M., et al (1989) Haloperidol and cognitive shifting. Neuropsychologic, 27, 629–639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berman, K. F., Zec, R. F. & Weinberger, D. R. (1986) Physiologic dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. II. Role of neuroleptic treatment, attention and mental effort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 126–135.Google Scholar
Besser, G. M. & Duncan, C. (1967) The time course of action of single doses of diazepam, chlorpromazine and some barbiturates as measured by auditory flutter fusion and visual flicker fusion thresholds in man. British Journal of Pharmacology and Chemotherapy, 30, 341–348.Google Scholar
Braff, D. L. & Saccuzzo, D. P. (1982) Effect of antipsychotic medication on speed of information processing in schizophrenic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 1127–1130.Google ScholarPubMed
Breier, A., Wolkowitz, O. M., Doran, A. R., et al (1987) Neuroleptic responsivity of negative and positive symptoms in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1549–1555.Google Scholar
Broadhurst, P. L. (1957) Emotionality and the Yerkes–Dodson law. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54, 345–352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks, G. W. & Weaver, L. A. (1961) Some relations between psychiatric and psychomotor behaviour changes associated with tranquillizing medications. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 2, 203–210.Google Scholar
Clark, C. R., Geffen, G. M. & Geffen, L. B. (1987) Catecholamines and attention II: Pharmacological studies in normal humans. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 11, 353–364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, C. R., Geffen, G. M. & Geffen, L. B. (1989) Catecholamines and the covert orientation of attention in humans. Neuropsychologic, 27, 131–139.Google Scholar
Classen, W. & Laux, G. (1988) Sensorimotor and cognitive performance of schizophrenic inpatients treated with haloperidol, flupenthixol, or clozapine. Pharmacopsychiatry, 21, 295–297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cleghorn, J. M., Kaplan, R. D., Szechtman, B., et al (1990) Neuroleptic drug effects on cognitive function in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 3, 211–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collerton, D., Fairbairn, A. & Britton, P. (1985) Cognitive performance of medicated schizophrenics with tardive dyskinesia. Psychological Medicine, 15, 311–315.Google Scholar
Cooper, S. M., Jackson, D., Loudon, J. M., et al (1989) The psychomotor effects of paroxetine alone and in combination with haloperidol, amylobarbitone, oxazepam, or alcohol. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 80 (suppl. 350), 53–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Court, J. H. & Cameron, I. A. (1963) Psychomotor assessment of the effects of haloperidol. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 17, 168–170.Google Scholar
Crow, T. J. (1980) Molecular pathology of schizophrenia: more than one disease process? British Medical Journal, 280, 66–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diefendorf, A. R. & Dodge, R. (1908) An experimental study of the ocular reactions of the insane from photographic records. Brain, 31, 451–489.Google Scholar
DiMascio, A., Havens, L. L. & Klerman, G. L. (1963a) The psychopharmacology of phenothiazine compounds: a comparative study of the effects of chlorpromazine, promethazine, trifluoperazine and perphenazine in normal males. I. Introduction, aims and methods. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 136, 15–28.Google Scholar
DiMascio, A., Havens, L. L. & Klerman, G. L. (1963b) The psychopharmacology of phenothiazine compounds: a comparative study of the effects of chlorpromazine, promethazine, trifluoperazine and perphenazine in normal males. II. Results and discussion. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 136, 168–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edwards, H. (1970) The significance of brain damage in persistent oral dyskinesia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 116, 271–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erickson, W. D., Yelun, A. M., Hopwood, J. H., et al (1984) The effects of neuroleptics on attention in adolescent schizophrenics. Biological Psychiatry, 19, 745–753.Google Scholar
Ey, H. (1962) Hughlings Jackson's principles and the organo-dynamic concept of psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 121, 673–683.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eysenck, H. J. (1957) Drugs and personality: I. Theory and methodology. Journal of Mental Science, 103, 119–131.Google Scholar
Fagan, D., Scott, D. B. & Mitchell, M. (1988) The psychomotor effects of remoxipride in healthy volunteers. Neuroscience Letters (suppl. 32), S45.Google Scholar
Famuyiwa, O. O., Eccleston, D., Donaldson, A. A. et al (1979) Tardive dyskinesia and dementia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 500–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, T. (1982) Positive and negative schizophrenic symptoms. British Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 210–211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frey, S., Bente, G., Fuchs, A., et al (1989) Spontaneous motor activity in healthy volunteers after single doses of haloperidol. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 4, 39–53.Google Scholar
Frith, C. D. (1987) The positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia reflect impairments in the perception and initiation of action. Psychological Medicine, 17, 631–648.Google Scholar
Goldberg, E. (1985a) Akinesia, tardive dysmentia, and frontal lobe disorder in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 11, 255–263.Google Scholar
Goldberg, S. C. (1985b) Negative and deficit symptoms in schizophrenia do respond to neuroleptics. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 11, 453–456.Google Scholar
Gottschalk, L. A. & Cohn, J. B. (1979) Studies of cognitive function as influenced by administration of haloperidol or diazepam in detoxification of acute alcoholics. Methods and Findings in Experimental Clinical Pharmacology, 1, 51–61.Google ScholarPubMed
Grossman, L. S., Luchins, D. J. & Harrow, M. (1989) Positive and negative symptoms and the neurology of schizophrenia. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 2, 20–25.Google Scholar
Gruzelier, J. H. & Hammond, N. V. (1978) The effect of chlorpromazine upon psychophysiological, endocrine and information processing measures in schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 14, 167–182.Google Scholar
Gruzelier, J. H., Seymour, K., Wilson, L. et al (1988) Impairments on neuropsychologic tests of temporohippocampal and frontohippo-campal function and word fluency in remitting schizophrenia and affective disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 623–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartley, L. R. (1983) Arousal, temporal and spatial uncertainty and drug effects. Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 7, 29–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartley, L. R., Couper-Smartt, J. & Henry, T. (1977) Behavioural antagonism between chlorpromazine and noise in man. Psychopharmacology, 55, 97–102.Google Scholar
Hartley, L. R., Couper-Smartt, J. (1978) Paradoxical effects in sleep and performance of two doses of chlorpromazine. Psychopharmacology, 58, 201–205.Google Scholar
Hartley, L. R., Henry, T. & Couper-Smartt, J. (1978) Chlorpromazine and serial reaction performance. British Journal of Psychology, 69, 271–276.Google Scholar
Heiuzer, F. (1959) The effects of chlorpromazine upon psychomotor and psychiatric behaviour of chronic schizophrenic patients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 128, 358–364.Google Scholar
Held, J. M., Cromwell, R. L., Frank, E. T., et al (1970) Effect of phenothiazines on reaction time in schizophrenics. Journal of Psychiatrical Research, 7, 209–213.Google Scholar
Heninger, G., DiMascio, A. & Klerman, G. L. (1965) Personality factors in variability of response to phenothiazines. American Journal of Psychiatry, 121, 1091–1094.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herbert, M., Standen, P. J., Short, A. H., et al (1983) A comparison of some psychological and physiological effects exerted by zetidoline (DL308) and by oxazepam. Psychopharmacology, 81, 335–339.Google Scholar
Howard, M. L., Hogan, T. P. & Wright, M. W. (1975) The effects of drugs on psychiatric patients’ performance on the Halstead–Reitan neuropsychological test battery. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 161, 166–171.Google Scholar
Jackson, J. H. (1889) On post-epileptic states: a contribution to the comparative study of insanities. Journal of Mental Science, 34, 490–500.Google Scholar
James, B. & James, N.McI. (1973) Low dosage haloperidol and induced anxiety in normal volunteers. New Zealand Medical Journal, 78, 210–212.Google Scholar
Janke, W. & Debus, G. (1972) Double-blind psychometric evaluation of pimozide and haloperidol versus placebo in emotionally labile volunteers under two different work load conditions. Pharmakopsychiatry, 1, 34–51.Google Scholar
Judson, A. M. & MacCasland, B. W. (1960) The effects of chlorpromazine on psychological test scores. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 192.Google Scholar
Kane, J. M. & Smith, J. M. (1982) Tardive dyskinesia: prevalence and risk factors, 1959 to 1979. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 473–481.Google Scholar
Kane, J. M. & Mayerhoff, D. (1989) Do negative symptoms respond to pharmacological treatment? British Journal of Psychiatry, 155 (suppl. 7), 115–118.Google Scholar
Klawans, H. L., Goetz, C. & Westheimer, R. (1972) Pathophysiology of schizophrenia and the striatum. Diseases of the Nervous System, 33, 711–719.Google ScholarPubMed
Kornetsky, C. (1972) The use of a simple test of attention as a measure of drug effects in schizophrenic patients. Psycho- pharmacologic, 24, 99–106.Google Scholar
Kornetsky, C. & Humphries, O. (1957) Relationship between effects of a number of centrally acting drugs and personality. AMA Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 77, 325–327.Google Scholar
Kornetsky, C., Humphries, O. Evarts, E. V. (1957) Comparison of psychological effects of certain centrally acting drugs in man. AMA Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 77, 318–324.Google Scholar
Kornetsky, C., Humphries, O. (1958) Psychological effects of centrally acting drugs in man. Journal of Mental Science, 104, 1093–1099.Google Scholar
Kornetsky, C., Pettit, M., Wynne, R. et al (1959) A comparison of the psychological effects of acute and chronic administration of chlorpromazine and secobarbital (quinalbarbitone) in schizophrenic patients. Journal of Mental Science, 105, 190–198.Google Scholar
Kornetsky, C. & Orzack, M. H. (1964) A research note on some of the critical factors on the dissimilar effects of chlorpromazine and secobarbital on the digit symbol substitution and continuous performance tests. Psychopharmacologia, 6, 79–86.Google Scholar
Latz, A. & Kornetsky, C. (1965) The effects of chlorpromazine and secobarbital under two conditions of reinforcement on the performance of chronic schizophrenic subjects. Psychopharmacologia, 7, 77–88.Google Scholar
Lehmann, H. E. & Hanrahan, G. E. (1954) Chlorpromazine. New inhibiting agent for psychomotor excitement and manic states. AMA Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 71, 227–237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lidsky, T. I., Labuszewski, T. & Levine, F. M. (1981) Are movement disorders the most serious side effects of maintenance therapy with antipsychotic drugs? Biological Psychiatry, 16, 1189–1194.Google Scholar
Liljequist, R., Linnoila, M., Mattila, M. J., et al (1975) Effect of two weeks’ treatment with thioridazine, chlorpromazine, sulpiride and bromazepam, alone or in combination with alcohol, on learning and memory in man. Psychopharmacologia, 44, 205–208.Google Scholar
Liljequist, R., Linnoila, M., Mattila, M. J., et al (1978) Effect of diazepam and chlorpromazine on memory functions in man. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 13, 339–343.Google Scholar
Loeb, M., Hawkes, J., Evans, P., et al (1965) Influence of d-amphetamine, benactyzine and chlorpromazine on performance in an auditory vigilance task. Psychonomic Science, 3, 29–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magliozzi, J. R., Gillespie, H., Lombrozo, L., et al (1985) Mood alteration following oral and intravenous haloperidol and relationship to drug concentration in normal subjects. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 25, 285–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Magliozzi, J. R., Mungas, D., Laubly, J. N., et al (1989) Effect of haloperidol on a symbol digit substitution task in normal adult males. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2, 29–37.Google Scholar
Marder, S. R., Asarnow, R. F. & van Putten, T. (1984) Information processing and neuroleptic response in acute and stabilized schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Research, 13, 41–49.Google Scholar
Marsalek, M., Pavlat, D. J., Petrovsky, M., et al (1988) The signs of brain vulnerability in tardive dyskinesia. Schizophrenia Research, 1, 231.Google Scholar
Marsden, C. D. (1976) Cerebral atrophy and cognitive impairment in chronic schizophrenia. Lancet, ii, 1079.Google Scholar
Matthysse, S. (1973) Antipsychotic drug actions: a clue to the neuropathology of schizophrenia. Federation Proceedings, 32, 200–205.Google Scholar
Matthysse, S. (1978) A theory of the relation between dopamine and attention. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 14, 241–248.Google Scholar
Mattila, M. J., Mattila, M. & Aranko, K. (1988a) Objective and subjective assessments of the effects of flupentixol and benzodiazepines on human psychomotor performance. Psychopharmacology, 95, 323–328.Google Scholar
Mattila, M. J., Mattila, M. Konno, K., et al (1988b) Objective and subjects effects of remoxipride, alone and in combination with ethanol or diazepam, on performance in healthy subjects. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2, 138–149.Google Scholar
McClelland, G. R., Cooper, S. M. & Raptopoulos, P. (1987) Paroxetine and haloperidol: effects on psychomotor performance. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 24, 268P–269P.Google Scholar
McGhie, A. & Chapman, J. (1961) Disorders of attention and perception in early schizophrenia. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 34, 103–116.Google Scholar
McGuire, R. & Thomas, P. (1986) Orofacial dyskinesia, cognitive function and medication. British Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 216–220.Google Scholar
Medalia, A., Gold, J. & Merriam, A. (1988) The effect of neuroleptics on neuropsychological test results of schizophrenics. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 3, 249–271.Google Scholar
Meise, U., Schwitzer, J., Günther, V., et al (1988) Tardive dyskinesia and cognitive dysfunction. Schizophrenia Research, 1, 232.Google Scholar
Meltzer, H. Y., Sommers, A. A. & Luchins, D. J. (1986) The effect of neuroleptics and other psychotropic drugs on negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 6, 329–338.Google Scholar
Meyer, F. P., Neubüser, G., Weimeister, O. et al (1983) Influence of thioridazine on human cognitive, psychomotor, and reaction performance as well as subjective feelings. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, Therapy and Toxicology, 21, 192–196.Google ScholarPubMed
Milner, G. & Landauer, A. A. (1971) Alcohol, thioridazine and chlorpromazine effects on skills related to driving behaviour. British Journal of Psychiatry, 118, 351–352.Google Scholar
Mirsky, A. F., Primac, D. W. & Bates, R. (1959) The effects of chlorpromazine and secobarbital on the continuous performance test. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 128, 12–17.Google Scholar
Mirsky, A. F., & Kornetsky, C. (1964) On the dissimilar effects of drugs on the digit symbol substitution and continuous performance tests. A review and preliminary integration of behavioral and physiological evidence. Psychopharmacologia, 5, 161–177.Google Scholar
Myslobodsky, M. S., Tomer, R., Holden, T., et al (1985) Cognitive impairment in patients with tardive dyskinesia. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 173, 156–160.Google Scholar
Oltmanns, T. F., Ohayon, J. & Neale, J. M. (1978) The effect of antipsychotic medication and diagnostic criteria on distractibility in schizophrenia. In The Nature of Schizophrenia. New Approaches to Research and Treatment, (eds L. C. Wynne, R. L. Cromwell, & S. Matthysse), pp. 283–286. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Orzack, M. H. & Kornetsky, C. (1971) Environmental and familial predictors of attention behavior in chronic schizophrenics. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 9, 21–29.Google Scholar
Parrott, A. C. & Hindmarch, I. (1975) Haloperidol and chlorpromazine – comparative effects upon arousal and performance. IRCS Medical Science, 3, 562.Google Scholar
Pearl, D. (1962) Phenothiazine effects in chronic schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 18, 86–89.3.0.CO;2-H>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pfeiffer, C. C., Goldstein, L. & Murphree, H. B. (1968) Effects of parenteral administration of haloperidol and chlorpromazine in man. I. Normal subjects: quantitative EEG and subjective response. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 8, 79–88.Google Scholar
Platt, J. E., Campbell, M., Green, W. H., et al (1984) Cognitive effects of lithium carbonate and haloperidol in treatment-resistant aggressive children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 657–662.Google Scholar
Porteus, S. D. (1957) Maze test reactions after chlorpromazine. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 21, 15–21.Google Scholar
Pugh, L. A. (1968) Response time and electrodermal measures in chronic schizophrenia: the effects of chlorpromazine. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 146, 62–70.Google Scholar
Randrup, A. & Munkvad, I. (1972) Evidence indicating an association between schizophrenia and dopaminergic hyperactivity in the brain. Orthomolecular Psychiatry, 1, 2–7.Google Scholar
Raskin, A., Friedman, A. S. & DiMascio, A. (1983) Effects of chlorpromazine, imipramine, diazepam and phenelzine on psychomotor and cognitive skills of depressed patients. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 19, 649–652.Google Scholar
Remr, J. (1970) The effects of chlorpromazine on some components of psychomotor performance in schizophrenics. Activitas Nervosa Superior (Praha), 12, 253–254.Google ScholarPubMed
Remr, J. (1971) The effects of chlorpromazine on fine psychomotor performance with a simultaneous secondary task in schizophrenics. Activitas Nervosa Superior (Praha), 13, 179.Google Scholar
Reus, V. I. (1983) Cognitive changes in schizoaffective patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 1255.Google Scholar
Rodnick, E. H. & Shakow, D. (1940) Set in the schizophrenic as measured by a composite reaction time index. American Journal of Psychiatry, 97, 214–225.Google Scholar
Rösler, F., Manzey, D., Sojka, B., et al (1985) Delineation of pharmacopsychological effects by means of endogenous event-related brain potentials; an exemplification with flupentixol. Neuropsychobiology, 13, 81–92.Google Scholar
Rösler, F., Stieglitz, R-D. & Manzey, D. (1986) Flupentixolhydro-chloride in low dosages: effects on perceptual and psychomotor performance in emotionally stable and emotionally labile healthy subjects. Neuropsychobiology, 16, 27–36.Google Scholar
Saarialho-Kere, U. (1988) Psychomotor, respiratory, and neuroendocrinological effects of nalbuphine and haloperidol, alone and in combination, in healthy subjects. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 26, 79–87.Google Scholar
Saario, I. (1976) Psychomotor skills during subacute treatment with thioridazine and bromazepam, and their combined effects with alcohol. Annals of Clinical Research, 8, 117–123.Google Scholar
Sakalis, C., Curry, S. H., Mould, G. P., et al (1972) Physiologic and clinical effects of chlorpromazine and their relationship to plasma level. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 13, 931–946.Google Scholar
Saletu, B., Grunberger, J., Linzmayer, L., et al (1983a) Determination of pharmacodynamics of the new neuroleptic zetidoline by neuroendocrinologic, pharmaco-EEG, and psychometric studies – Part I. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, Therapy and Toxicology, 21, 489–495.Google Scholar
Saletu, B., Grunberger, J., Linzmayer, L., et al (1983b) Determination of pharmacodynamics of the new neuroleptic zetidoline by neuroendocrinologic, pharmaco-EEG, and psychometric studies – Part II. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, Therapy and Toxicology, 21, 544–551.Google Scholar
Saletu, B., Kufferle, B., Grünberger, J., et al (1986) Quantitative EEG, SPEM, and psychometric studies in schizophrenics before and during differential neuroleptic therapy. Pharmacopsychiatry, 19, 434–437.Google Scholar
Saletu, B., Grunberger, J., Linzmayer, L., et al (1987) Comparative placebo-controlled pharmacodynamic studies with zotepine and clozapine utilizing pharmaco-EEG and psychometry. Pharmacopsychiatry, 20, 12–27.Google Scholar
Serafetinides, E. A. & Clark, M. L. (1973) Psychological effects of single-dose antipsychotic medication. Biological Psychiatry, 7, 263–267.Google Scholar
Shatin, L., Rockmore, L. & Funk, I. C. (1956) Response of psychiatric patients to massive doses of thorazine: II: Psychological test performance and comparative drug evaluation. Psychiatric Quarterly, 30, 402–416.Google Scholar
Sorokin, J. E., Giordani, B., Mohs, R. C. et al (1988) Memory impairment in schizophrenic patients with tardive dyskinesia. Biological Psychiatry, 23, 129–135.Google Scholar
Spohn, H. E., Lacoursiere, R. B., Thompson, K., et al (1977) Phenothiazine effects on psychological and psychophysiological dysfunction in chronic schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 34, 633–644.Google Scholar
Spohn, H. E., Coyne, L., Lacoursiere, R., et al (1985) Relation of neuroleptic dose and tardive dyskinesia to attention, information-processing, and psychophysiology in medicated schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 849–859.Google Scholar
Stone, G. C., Callaway, E., Jones, R. T., et al (1969) Chlorpromazine slows decay of visual short-term memory. Psychonomic Science, 16, 229–230.Google Scholar
Struve, F. A. & Willner, A. E. (1983) Cognitive dysfunction and tardive dyskinesia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 597–600.Google Scholar
Szabadi, E., Bradshaw, C. M. & Gaszner, P. (1980) The comparison of the effects of DL-308, a potential new neuroleptic agent, and thioridazine on some psychological and physiological functions in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology, 68, 125–134.Google Scholar
Tecce, J. J. & Cole, J. O. (1972) Psychophysiologic responses of schizophrenics to drugs. Psychopharmacologia, 24, 159–200.Google Scholar
Tecce, J. J., Cole, J. O. Savignano-Bowman, J. (1975) Chlorpromazine effects on brain activity (contingent negative variation) and reaction time in normal women. Psychopharmacologia, 43, 293–295.Google Scholar
Theofilopoulos, N., Szabadi, E. & Bradshaw, C. M. (1984) Comparison of the effects of ranitidine, cimetidine and thioridazine on psychomotor functions in healthy volunteers. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 18, 135–144.Google Scholar
Tomer, R. & Flor-Henry, P. (1989) Neuroleptics reverse attention asymmetries in schizophrenic patients. Biological Psychiatry, 25, 852–860.Google Scholar
van Kammen, D. P. & Boronow, J. J. (1988) Dextroamphetamine diminishes negative symptoms in schizophrenia. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 3, 111–121.Google Scholar
Venables, P. H. & Wing, J. K. (1962) Level of arousal and the sub-classification of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 7, 114–119.Google Scholar
von Aschoff, J. C., Becker, W. & Weinert, D. (1974) Computer-Nystagmographie als neue Bestimmungsmethode von Vigilanz und Reaktionsverhalten unter Psychopharmaka. Arzneim-Forsch (Drug Research), 24, 1085–1087.Google Scholar
Waddington, J. L. (1987) Tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia and other disorders: associations with ageing, cognitive dysfunction and structural brain pathology in relation to neuroleptic exposure. Human Psychopharmacology, 2, 11–22.Google Scholar
Waddington, J. L., O'Boyle, K. M., Molloy, A. G., et al (1985) Neurotransmitter receptors and ageing: dopamine/neuroleptic receptors, involuntary movements and the disease process of schizophrenia. In Therapeutics in the Elderly (eds K. O'Malley & J. L. Waddington), pp. 63–76. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Waddington, J. L., & Youssef, H. A. (1986) Late onset involuntary movements in chronic schizophrenia: relationship of ‘tardive’ dyskinesia to intellectual impairment and negative symptoms. British Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 616–620.Google Scholar
Wade, J. B., Taylor, M. A., Kasprisin, A., et al (1987) Tardive dyskinesia and cognitive impairment. Biological Psychiatry, 22, 393–395.Google Scholar
Wahba, M., Donlon, P. T. & Meadow, A. (1981) Cognitive changes in acute schizophrenia with brief neuroleptic treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 1307–1310.Google Scholar
Walker, E. (1981) Attentional and neuromotor functions of schizophrenics, schizoaffectives, and patients with other affective disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 1355–1358.Google Scholar
Walker, E. (1983) Cognitive changes in schizoaffective patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 1255.Google Scholar
Wegner, J. T., Catalano, F., Gibralter, J., et al (1985) Schizophrenics with tardive dyskinesia: neuropsychological deficit and family psychopathology. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 860–865.Google Scholar
Weinberger, D. R. (1987) Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 660–669.Google Scholar
Submit a response

eLetters

No eLetters have been published for this article.