Hostname: page-component-5b777bbd6c-gtgcz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-06-26T06:21:01.234Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Pretesting effects on incidental L2 vocabulary learning through reading

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 June 2025

Eva Puimège Open the ORCID record for Eva Puimège [Opens in a new window] ,
Eva Caltabellotta Open the ORCID record for Eva Caltabellotta [Opens in a new window]  and
Elke Peters Open the ORCID record for Elke Peters [Opens in a new window]
Eva Puimège*
Affiliation:
Faculty of Arts, https://ror.org/05f950310 KU Leuven , Belgium
Eva Caltabellotta
Affiliation:
Faculty of Arts, https://ror.org/05f950310 KU Leuven , Belgium
Elke Peters
Affiliation:
Faculty of Arts, https://ror.org/05f950310 KU Leuven , Belgium
*
Corresponding author: Eva Puimège; Email: eva.puimege@kuleuven.be
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An increasing number of studies have shown that pretesting L2 word knowledge before a study phase can enhance subsequent learning. However, little is known about pretesting effects in the context of incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition. This study explores the effects of pretesting on L2 vocabulary learning through reading, focusing on the moderating effect of the pretest format. One hundred and forty-three participants were randomly assigned to a nonpretested condition or three pretested conditions (meaning recall, meaning recognition, and form recognition). In the pretested conditions, participants completed a vocabulary pretest, followed by a meaning-focused reading task and three vocabulary posttests. The findings show that the meaning recall and form recognition groups were impacted most by pretesting in terms of learning outcomes and perceptions of the learning intervention. However, the pretesting effect on posttest scores was small and statistically nonsignificant, suggesting a minimal impact of pretesting on incidental learning outcomes.

Keywords

vocabularysecond language acquisitiontest effectsincidental learning
Type
Research Article
Information
Studies in Second Language Acquisition , First View , pp. 1 - 20
Check for updates
Open Practices
Open materials
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Adams, D. (1979). The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy. Pan Books.Google Scholar
Anwyl-Irvine, A. L., Massonié, J., Flitton, A., Kirkham, N. Z., & Evershed, J. K. (2020). Gorilla in our midst: an online behavioural experiment builder. Behavior Research Methods, 52, 388–407.10.3758/s13428-019-01237-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balota, D. A., & Neely, J. H. (1980). Test-expectancy and word-frequency effects in recall and recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6(5), 576–587.Google Scholar
Barcroft, J. (2007). Effects of opportunities for word retrieval during second language vocabulary learning. Language Learning, 57(1), 35–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00398.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67, 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blaxton, T. A. (1989). Investigating Dissociations Among Memory Measures: Support for a Transfer-Appropriate Processing Framework. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning. Memory, and Cognition, 15(4), 657–668.Google Scholar
Carpenter, S. K. (2009). Cue strength as a moderator of the testing effect: The benefits of elaborative retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 35(6), 1563–1569. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017021Google ScholarPubMed
Chinn, S. (2000). A simple method for converting an odds ratio to effect size for use in meta-analysis. Statistics in Medicine, 19, 3127–3131. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0258(20001130)19:22<3127::aid-sim784>3.0.co;2-m3.0.CO;2-M>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chan, J. C. K., Meissner, C. A., & Davis, S. D. (2018). Retrieval potentiates new learning: A theoretical and meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 144(11), 1111–1146. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/bul0000166CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cobb, T. (n.d.). Range for texts v.3 [computer program]. Retrieved 23 April 2023, from https://www.lextutor.ca/cgi-bin/range/texts/index.plGoogle Scholar
Davies, M. (2008). The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). https://www.english-corpora.org/coca/Google Scholar
Durrant, P., Siyanova-Chanturia, A., Kremmel, B., & Sonbul, S. (2022). Research methods in vocabulary studies. John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/rmal.2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elgort, I., & Beyersmann, E. (2024). Do reading times predict word learning? An eye–tracking study with novel words. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 46(4), 1282–1297. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263124000585CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elgort, I., Wetering, R.V.D., Arrow, T., & Beyersmann, E. (2024). Previewing novel words before reading affects their processing during reading: An eye-movement study with first and second language readers. Language Learning, 74(1), 78–110. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12579CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feng, Y., & Webb, S. (2020). Learning vocabulary through reading, listening, and viewing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42(3), 499–523. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263119000494CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finley, J. R., & Benjamin, A. S. (2012). Adaptive and qualitative changes in encoding strategy with experience: Evidence from the test-expectancy paradigm. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 38(3), 632–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026215Google ScholarPubMed
Geller, J., Carpenter, S. K., Lamm, M. H., Rahman, S., Armstrong, P. I., & Coffman, C. R. (2017). Prequestions do not enhance the benefits of retrieval in a STEM classroom. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 2(1), 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-017-0078-zGoogle ScholarPubMed
Godfroid, A., Boers, F., & Housen, A. (2013). An eye for words: Gauging the role of attention in incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition by means of eye tracking. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35, 483–517. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263113000119CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grimaldi, P. J., & Karpicke, J. D. (2012). When and why do retrieval attempts enhance subsequent encoding? Memory and Cognition, 40(4), 505–513. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-011-0174-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartig, F. (2022). DHARMa: Residual diagnostics for hierarchical (multi-level/ mixed) regression models (version 0.4.5). https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=DHARMaGoogle Scholar
Hays, M. J., Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2013). When and why a failed test potentiates the effectiveness of subsequent study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 39(1), 290–296. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028468Google Scholar
Horst, M., Cobb, T., & Meara, P. (1998). Beyond A clockwork orange: Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 11(2), 207–223.Google Scholar
Hulstijn, J. H. (2003). Incidental and intentional learning. In Doughty, C. & Long, M. H. (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 349–381). Blackwell.10.1002/9780470756492.ch12CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, K. K., & Storm, B. C. (2019). Beyond the pretesting effect: What happens to the information that is not pretested? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 25(4), 576–587. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000231Google Scholar
JASP Team. (2024). JASP (Version 0.18.3) [Computer software].Google Scholar
Keuleers, E., Brysbaert, M., & New, B. (2010). SUBTLEX-NL: A new measure for Dutch word frequency based on film subtitles. Behavior Research Methods, 42(3), 643–650. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.42.3.643CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kornell, N. (2014). Attempting to answer a meaningful question enhances subsequent learning even when feedback is delayed. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 40(1), 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033699Google ScholarPubMed
Kornell, N., Hays, M. J., & Bjork, R. A. (2009). Unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance subsequent learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 35(4), 989–998. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015729Google ScholarPubMed
Laufer, B., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2001). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language: The construct of task-induced involvement. Applied Linguistics, 22, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/22.1.1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lenth, R. (2018). emmeans: estimated marginal means, aka least-squares means. [R package]. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=emmeansGoogle Scholar
Leonard, J. M., & Whitten, W. B. (1983). Information stored when expecting recall or recognition. In Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9(3), 440–455.Google Scholar
Li, A. M., & Boers, F. (2024). A multiple-choice exercise on collocations: What do learners actually remember? International Journal of Applied Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12666Google Scholar
Little, J. L., & Bjork, E. L. (2016). Multiple-choice pretesting potentiates learning of related information. Memory and Cognition, 44(7), 1085–1101. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-016-0621-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nakata, T., Tada, S., Mclean, S., & Kim, Y. A. (2021). Effects of distributed retrieval practice over a semester: Cumulative tests as a way to facilitate second language vocabulary learning. TESOL Quarterly, 55(1), 248–270. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.596CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nation, I. S. P., & Webb, S. (2011). Research and Analyzing Vocabulary. Heinle, Cengage Learning.Google Scholar
OpenAI. (n.d.). ChatGPT. [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chatGoogle Scholar
Pan, S. C., & Carpenter, S. K. (2023). Prequestioning and pretesting effects: A review of empirical research, theoretical perspectives, and implications for educational practice. Educational Psychology Review, 35(4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09814-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pavia, N., Webb, S., & Faez, F. (2019). Incidental vocabulary learning through listening to songs. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 41(4), 745–768. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263119000020CrossRefGoogle Scholar
R Core Team (2022). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org/Google Scholar
Pellicer-Sánchez, A., & Schmitt, N. (2010). Incidental vocabulary acquisition from an authentic novel : Do Things Fall Apart? 22(1), 31–55. http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rflGoogle Scholar
Peters, E. (2019). The effect of imagery and on-screen text on foreign language vocabulary learning from audiovisual input. TESOL Quarterly, 53(4), 1008–1032. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.531CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, E., & Webb, S. (2018). Incidental vocabulary acquisition through viewing L2 television and factors that affect learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(3), 551–577. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263117000407CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, E., Noreillie, A., Heylen, K., Bulté, B., & Desmet, P. (2019). The impact of instruction and out-of-school exposure to foreign language input on learners’ vocabulary knowledge in two languages. Language Learning, 69(3), 747–782. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12351CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, E., Puimège, E., & Szudarski, P. (2023). Repetition and incidental learning of multiword units: A conceptual multisite replication study of Webb, Newton, and Chang (2013). Language Learning, 73(4), 1211–1251. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12621CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potts, R., Davies, G., & Shanks, D. R. (2019). The benefit of generating errors during learning: What is the locus of the effect? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 45(6), 1023–1041. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000637Google Scholar
Potts, R., & Shanks, D. R. (2014). The benefit of generating errors during learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(2), 644–667. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033194CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richland, L. E., Kornell, N., & Kao, L. S. (2009). The Pretesting Effect: Do Unsuccessful Retrieval Attempts Enhance Learning? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 15(3), 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016496Google ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, S. R. (1988). Test expectancy and individual-item versus relational processing. Source: The American Journal of Psychology, 10(1), 59–71.Google Scholar
Schmitt, N. (2010). Researching vocabulary. Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230293977CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N. (2019). Understanding vocabulary acquisition, instruction, and assessment: A research agenda. Language Teaching, 52(2), 261–274. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444819000053CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N., Nation, P., & Kremmel, B. (2020). Moving the field of vocabulary assessment forward: The need for more rigorous test development and validation. Language Teaching, 53(1), 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444819000326CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N., Schmitt, D., & Clapham, C. (2001). Developing and exploring the behaviour of two new versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test. Language Testing, 18(1), 55–88.10.1177/026553220101800103CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seabrooke, T., Hollins, T. J., Kent, C., Wills, A. J., & Mitchell, C. J. (2019). Learning from failure: Errorful generation improves memory for items, not associations. Journal of Memory and Language, 104, 70–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2018.10.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seabrooke, T., Mitchell, C. J., Wills, A. J., Inkster, A. B., & Hollins, T. J. (2022). The benefits of impossible tests: Assessing the role of error-correction in the pretesting effect. Memory & Cognition, 50, 296–311. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-021-01218-6/PublishedCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
St. Hilaire, K. J., & Carpenter, S. K. (2020). Prequestions enhance learning, but only when they are remembered. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 26(4), 705–716. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000296Google ScholarPubMed
Strong, B., & Leeming, P. (2024). Evaluating the application of a gap-fill exercise on the learning of phrasal verbs: Do errors help or hinder learning? TESOL Quarterly, 58(2), 726–750. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.3248CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swanborn, M. S. L., & De Glopper, K. (1999). Incidental word learning while reading: A meta-analysis, 69(3), 261–285.Google Scholar
Uchihara, T., Webb, S., & Yanagisawa, A. (2019). The effects of repetition on incidental vocabulary learning: A meta-analysis of correlational studies. Language Learning, 69(3), 559–599. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12343CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van den Broek, G. S. E., Takashima, A., Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2018). Contextual richness and word learning: Context enhances comprehension but retrieval enhances retention. Language Learning, 68(2), 546–585. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12285CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, S. (2020). Incidental Vocabulary Learning. In Webb, S. (Ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Vocabulary Studies (pp. 225–239). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429291586Google Scholar
Webb, S., Uchihara, T., & Yanagisawa, A. (2023). How effective is second language incidental vocabulary learning? A meta-analysis. Language Teaching, 56(2), 161–180. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444822000507CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yanagisawa, A., & Webb, S. (2021). To what extent does the involvement load hypothesis predict incidental L2 vocabulary learning? A meta-analysis. Language Learning, 71(2), 487–536. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12444CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, C., Potts, R., & Shanks, D. R. (2017). Metacognitive unawareness of the errorful generation benefit and its effects on self-regulated learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 43(7), 1073–1092. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000363Google ScholarPubMed