Hostname: page-component-cb9f654ff-nr592 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-08-17T06:04:10.617Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

EXPOSURE FREQUENCY IN L2 READING

AN EYE-MOVEMENT PERSPECTIVE OF INCIDENTAL VOCABULARY LEARNING

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 May 2017

Ayman A. Mohamed
Ayman A. Mohamed*
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
*
*Correspondence should be sent to Dr. Ayman Mohamed, Department of Linguistics and Languages, B330 Wells Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48823. Phone: 517-993-3793; E-mail: mohame44@msu.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The present study brings together methods of extensive reading studies and eye-movement research to track the cognitive effects of exposure frequency on vocabulary processing and learning. Forty-two advanced second language learners of English read a stage 1 graded reader, Goodbye Mr. Hollywood, on a computer screen while their eye movements were recorded. The eye-tracking task was followed by comprehension questions and vocabulary posttests. Target vocabulary consisted of 20 pseudo words and 20 known words with a range of repetition from 1 to 30. Eye-movement data showed that readers spent more time on pseudo words than on familiar words and that fixation times decreased across encounters with more attention given to target words on early encounters. Repeated exposure supported form recognition but was not as significant for meaning recall and recognition. Total times spent on each encounter was positively associated with learning success in all vocabulary measures. The amount of attention, as reflected in total reading times on each pseudo word, positively predicted learning outcomes above and beyond the number of encounters. Results of the study add a cognitive dimension to the concept of engagement in lexical learning in the process of incidental learning from second language reading.

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Studies in Second Language Acquisition , Volume 40 , Issue 2 , June 2018 , pp. 269 - 293
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

Ayman Mohamed is an assistant professor in the Department of Linguistics and Languages at Michigan State University.

References

REFERENCES

Ashby, J., Rayner, K., & Clifton, C. J. (2005). Eye movements of highly skilled and average readers: Differential effects of frequency and predictability. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58A, 1065–1086.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bengeleil, N. F., & Paribakht, S. (2004). L2 reading proficiency and lexical inferencing by university EFL learners. Canadian Modern Language Review, 61, 225–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, R., Waring, R., & Donkaewbua, S. (2008). Vocabulary acquisition from reading, reading-while-listening, and listening to stories. Reading in a Foreign Language, 20, 136–163.Google Scholar
Brusnighan, S. M., & Folk, J. R. (2012). Combining contextual and morphemic cues is beneficial processing. Reading Research Quarterly, 47, 172–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaffin, R., Morris, R. K., & Seely, R. E. (2001). Learning new words in context: A study of eye movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 225–235. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.27.1.225Google Scholar
Chen, C., & Truscott, J. (2010). The effects of repetition and L1 lexicalization on incidental vocabulary acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 31, 693–713.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clifton, C. Jr., Staub, A., & Rayner, K. (2007). Eye movements in reading words and sentences. In van Gompel, R. P. G., Fischer, M. H., Murray, W. S., & Hill, R. L. (Eds.), Eye movements: A window on mind and brain (pp. 341–371). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier, North Holland.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Day, R., Omura, C., & Hiramatsu, M. (1991). Incidental EFL vocabulary learning and reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 7, 541–551.Google Scholar
Ferguson, C. J. (2009). An effect size primer: A guide for clinicians and researchers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40, 532–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraser, C. A. (1999). Lexical processing strategy use and vocabulary learning through reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 225–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Godfroid, A. (2012). Eye tracking. In Robinson, P. (Ed.), The Routledge encyclopedia of second language acquisition (pp. 234–236). New York, NY, and London, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Godfroid, A., Boers, F., & Housen, A. (2013). An eye for words: Gauging the role of attention in incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition by means of eye-tracking. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35, 483–517. doi: 10.1017/S0272263113000119CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. (2011). Teaching and researching reading (2nd ed.). Harlow UK: Pearson Education.Google Scholar
Heatley, A., Nation, I. S. P., & Coxhead, A. (2002). Range [Computer software]. Retrieved from http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/staff/paul-nation/nation.aspxGoogle Scholar
Heck, R. H., Thomas, S., & Tabata, L. N. (2012). Multilevel modeling of categorical outcomes using IBM SPSS. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Horst, M. (2005). Learning L2 vocabulary through extensive reading: A measurement study. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 61, 355–382. doi: 10.3138/cmlr.61.3.355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horst, M., Cobb, T., & Meara, P. (1998). Beyond A Clockwork Orange: Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 11, 207–223.Google Scholar
Hyönä, J., & Niemi, P. (1990). Eye movements in repeated movements of a text. Acta Psychologica, 73, 259–280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joseph, H. S., Wonnacott, E., Forbes, P., & Nation, K. (2014). Becoming a written word: Eye movements reveal order of acquisition effects following incidental exposure to new words during silent reading. Cognition, 133, 238–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juhasz, B. J., & Pollatsek, A. P. (2011). Lexical influences on eye movements in reading. In Liversedge, S. P., Gilchrist, I. D., & Everling, S. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook on eye movements (pp. 873–893). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kliegl, R., Grabner, E., Rolfs, M., & Engbert, R. (2004). Length, frequency, and predictability effects of words on eye movements in reading. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16, 262–284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laufer, B. (2003). Vocabulary acquisition in a second language: Do learners really acquire most vocabulary by reading? Some empirical evidence. Canadian Modern Language Review, 59, 567–587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laufer, B. (2005). Focus on form in second language vocabulary learning. EUROSLA Yearbook, 5, 223–250. doi: 10.1075/eurosla.5.11lauCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laufer, B., & Hulstijn, J. (2001). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language: The construct of task-induced involvement. Applied Linguistics, 22, 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liversedge, S., Gilchrist, I., & Everling, S. (Eds.). (2011). The Oxford handbook of eye movements. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macaro, E. (2003). Teaching and learning a second language: A review of recent research. London, UK, and New York, NY: Continuum.Google Scholar
Meara, P. (1992). EFL vocabulary test. Swansea, UK: University College, Centre for Applied Language Studies.Google Scholar
Menard, S. (2010). Logistic regression: From introductory to advanced concepts and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139524759CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nation, I. S. P. (2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? Canadian Modern Language Review, 63, 59–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paribakht, S., & Wesche, M. (1999). Reading and “incidental” L2 vocabulary acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 195–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pellicer-Sánchez, A. (2016). Incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition from and while reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38, 97–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pellicer-Sánchez, A., & Schmitt, N. (2010). Incidental vocabulary acquisition from an authentic novel: Do things fall apart? Reading in a Foreign Language, 22, 31–55.Google Scholar
Pigada, M., & Schmitt, N. (2006). Vocabulary acquisition from extensive reading: A case study. Reading in a Foreign Language, 22, 1–28.Google Scholar
Pitts, M., White, H., & Krashen, S. (1989). Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading: A replication of the Clockwork Orange study using second language acquirers. Reading in a Foreign Language, 5, 271–275.Google Scholar
Pollatsek, A., Reichle, E. D., & Rayner, K. (2006). Tests of the E-Z Reader model: Exploring the interface between cognition and eye-movement control. Cognitive Psychology, 52, 1–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Powers, D. A., & Xie, Y. (2008). Statistical methods for categorical data analysis. Bingley, UK: Emerald.Google Scholar
Pulido, D. (2004). The relationship between text comprehension and second language incidental vocabulary acquisition: A matter of topic familiarity? Language Learning, 54, 469–523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raney, G., & Rayner, K. (1995). Word frequency effects and eye movements during two readings of a text. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49, 151–172. doi: 10.1037/1196-1961.49.2.151CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 372–422. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.372CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K. (2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 1457–1506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayner, K., & Juhasz, B. J. (2004). Eye movements in reading: Old questions and new directions. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16, 340–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., & Well, A. D. (1996). Effects of contextual constraint on Eye movements in reading: A further examination. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3, 504–509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayner, K., Raney, G. E., & Pollatsek, A. (1995). Eye movements and discourse processing. In Lorch, R. F. and O’Brien, E. J. (Eds.), Sources of coherence in reading (pp. 9–36). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Rayner, K., Ashby, J., Pollatsek, A., & Reichle, E. D. (2004). The effects of frequency and predictability on eye fixations in reading: Implications for the E-Z Reader model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 30, 720–732.Google ScholarPubMed
Read, J. (2004). Research in teaching vocabulary. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 146–161. doi: 10.1017/S0267190504000078CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reichle, E. D., Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (2003). The E-Z Reader model of eye movement control in reading: Comparison to other models. Brain and Behavioral Sciences, 26, 445–476.10.1017/S0140525X03000104CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reichle, E. D., Warren, T., & McConnell, K. (2009). Using EZ Reader to model the effects of higher level language processing on eye movements during reading. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rott, S. (1999). The effect of exposure frequency on intermediate language learners’ incidental vocabulary acquisition and retention through reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 589–619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rott, S. (2005). Processing glosses: A qualitative exploration of how form-meaning connections are established and strengthened. Reading in a Foreign Language, 17, 95–124.Google Scholar
Rott, S., & Williams, J. (2003). Making form-meaning connections while reading: A qualitative analysis of word processing. Reading in a Foreign Language, 15, 45–75.Google Scholar
Saragi, T., Nation, I. S. P., & Meister, F. (1978). Vocabulary learning and reading. System, 6, 72–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N. (2008). Review article: Instructed second language vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 12, 329–363. doi: 10.1177/1362168808089921CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N. (2010). Researching vocabulary: A vocabulary research manual. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waring, R., & Nation, I. S. P. (2004). Second language reading and incidental vocabulary learning. Angles on the English Speaking World, 4, 97–110.Google Scholar
Waring, R., & Takaki, M. (2003). At what rate do learners learn and retain new vocabulary from a graded reader? Reading in a Foreign Language, 15, 130–163.Google Scholar
Webb, S. (2007). The effects of repetition on vocabulary knowledge. Applied Linguistics, 28, 46–65. doi: 10.1093/applin/aml048CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, S. (2008). The effects of context on incidental vocabulary learning. Reading in a Foreign Language, 20, 232–245.Google Scholar
Webb, S., & Chang, A. C. S. (2015a). How does prior word knowledge affect vocabulary learning progress in an extensive reading program? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37(4), 651–675.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, S., & Chang, A. C. S. (2015b). Second language vocabulary learning through extensive reading with audio support: How do frequency and distribution of occurrence affect learning? Language Teaching Research, 19(6), 667–686.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, R. S., & Morris, R. K. (2004). Eye movements, word familiarity, and vocabulary acquisition. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16, 312–339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winke, P. M., Godfroid, A., & Gass, S. M. (2013). Introduction to the special issue. Eye-movement recordings in second language research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35, 205–212. doi: 10.1017/S027226311200085XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zahar, R., Cobb, T., & Spada, N. (2001). Acquiring vocabulary through reading: Effects of frequency and contextual richness. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57, 541–572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar