Hostname: page-component-5b777bbd6c-5mwv9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-06-20T18:21:21.140Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Universal Credit and Automated Decision Making: A Case of the Digital Tail Wagging the Policy Dog?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 December 2021

Rita Griffiths Open the ORCID record for Rita Griffiths [Opens in a new window]
Rita Griffiths*
Affiliation:
University of Bath, Institute for Policy Research, Bath, UK. E-mail: rita@insiteresearch.co.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Intended to simplify the benefit system and ’make work pay’, Universal Credit (UC) is the UK’s first ‘digital by design’ benefit. Proponents of UC highlight the greater efficiency and effectiveness of digitalisation, while critics point to costly IT write-offs and the ‘digital divide’ between people with the skills and resources to access digital technologies, and those without. Less attention has been paid to automation in UC and its effects on the people subject to these rapidly developing technologies. Findings from research exploring couples’ experiences of claiming UC suggest that automated processes for assessing entitlement and calculating payment may be creating additional administrative burdens for some claimants. Rigid design parameters built into UC’s digital architecture may also restrict options for policy reform. The article calls for a broadening of thinking and research about digitalisation in welfare systems to include questions of administrative burden and the wider effects and impacts on claimants.

Keywords

Universal Creditdigitalisationautomationautomated decision makingwelfare reform
Type
Article
Information
Social Policy and Society , Volume 23 , Issue 1: THEMED SECTION: Social Policy Responses to the Cost-of-Living-Crisis , January 2024 , pp. 1 - 18
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021 Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Alston, P. (2019a) Visit to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights, Human Rights Council Forty-first session 24 June–12 July, https://undocs.org/en/A/HRC/41/39/Add.1 [accessed 03.07.2020].Google Scholar
Alston, P. (2019b) Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights, United Nations A/74/493, General Assembly, 11 October, https://undocs.org/A/74/493 [accessed 05.07.2020].Google Scholar
Ballard, M. (2013) ‘Why agile development failed for the Universal Credit IT programme’, Computer Weekly, 13–22 July, https://www.computerweekly.com/news/2240187478/Why-agile-development-failed-for-Universal-Credit [accessed 07.01.2021].Google Scholar
Bennett, F. (2020) ‘Universal Credit and Covid-19’, Poverty 167, Child Poverty Action Group, https://cpag.org.uk/sites/default/files/files/policypost/CPAG-Poverty167-UC-and-Covid-19-Oct-2020.pdf [accessed 12.01.2021].Google Scholar
Bennett, F., Brewer, M. and Shaw, J. (2009) Understanding the Compliance Costs of Benefits and Tax Credits, London: The Institute for Fiscal Studies.Google Scholar
Booth, R. (2019) ‘Benefit system automation could plunge claimants into deeper poverty’, The Guardian, 14 October, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/oct/14/fears-rise-in-benefits-system-automation-could-plunge-claimants-deeper-into-poverty [accessed 03.08.2020].Google Scholar
Brewer, M. and Handscomb, K. (2020) ‘This time is different – Universal Credit’s first recession’, Executive Summary, Resolution Foundation, 27 May.Google Scholar
Brignall, M. (2020) “It’s a nightmare’: women faces £1,300 demand due to universal credit fraud’, The Guardian, 14 November, https://www.theguardian.com/money/2020/nov/14/universal-credit-fraud-scam [accessed 11.12.2020].Google Scholar
Butler, P. (2020) ‘Coronavirus has improved the welfare system: there must be no going back’, The Guardian, 21 April, https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/apr/21/coronavirus-improved-welfare-system-no-going-back [accessed 12.09.2020].Google Scholar
Cabinet Office (2017) Policy Paper: Government Transformation Strategy 2017–2020, Government Digital Service, 9 February, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/government-transformation-strategy-2017-to-2020/government-transformation-strategy [accessed 10.12.2020].Google Scholar
Carney, T. (2018) ‘The new digital future for welfare: debts without legal proofs or moral authority?’, The New Digital Future for Welfare, 2018, 1, http://www.unswlawjournal.unsw.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/2018-1-CARNEY.pdf [accessed 05.08.2020].Google Scholar
Cauldfield, C. (2020) “No chance’ wait for Universal Credit payments can be shortened’, Metro News, 15 April, https://metro.co.uk/2020/04/15/no-chance-wait-universal-credit-payments-can-shortened-12561857/ [accessed 01.08.2020].Google Scholar
Child Poverty Action Group (CPAG) (2019a) Computer Says No! Stage One: Information Provision, London: CPAG, https://cpag.org.uk/sites/default/files/files/policypost/Computer%20says%20%27no%21%27%20Stage%20one%20-%20information%20provision.pdf [accessed 20.07.2020].Google Scholar
Child Poverty Action Group (CPAG) (2019b) Computer Says No! Stage Two: Challenging Decisions, London: CPAG, https://cpag.org.uk/sites/default/files/files/policypost/Computer%20says%20no%21%202%20-%20for%20web.pdf [accessed 20.07.2020].Google Scholar
Clement-Jones, C. (2020) ‘The government’s approach to algorithmic decision-making is broken: here’s how to fix it’, New Statesman, 18 February, https://tech.newstatesman.com/guest-opinion/algorithmic-decision-making [accessed 15.09.2020].Google Scholar
Coles-Kemp, L., Ashenden, D., Morris, A. and Yuillel, J. (2020) ‘Digital welfare: designing for more nuanced forms of access’, Policy Design and Practice, 3, 2, 177–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Committee on Standards in Public Life (CSPL) (2020) Artificial Intelligence and Public Standards: A Review by the Committee on Standards in Public Life, London: Committee on Standards in Public Life, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/868284/Web_Version_AI_and_Public_Standards.PDF [accessed 01.12.2020].Google Scholar
Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (2019) Tackling Fraud in Government with Data Analytics: Starting the Conversation, London: Cabinet Office, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/813647/Tackling_fraud_in_government_with_data_analytics.pdf [accessed 01.08.2020].Google Scholar
Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) (2012a) Digital Strategy, Government Digital, London: Department for Work and Pensions, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/193901/dwp-digital-strategy.pdf [accessed 19.07.2020].Google Scholar
Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) (2012b) Universal Credit Evaluation Framework, London: Department for Work and Pensions, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/180879/universal-credit-evaluation-framework.pdf [accessed 15.07.2020].Google Scholar
Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) (2014) Universal Credit at Work, October, London: Department for Work and Pensions, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/368805/uc-at-work.pdf [accessed 04.07.2020].Google Scholar
Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) (2015) Universal Credit at Work, Spring, London: Department for Work and Pensions, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/405921/uc-at-work-spring-2015.pdf [accessed 12.07.2020].Google Scholar
Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) (2016) Evaluation of the Universal Support Delivered Locally Trials, Final report, London: Department for Work and Pensions, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/537089/ad-hoc-report-33-evaluation-of-the-universal-support-delivered-locally-trials.pdf [accessed 18.07.2020].Google Scholar
Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) (2018a) Universal Credit: Full Service Claimant Survey, London: Department for Work and Pensions, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/714842/universal-credit-full-serviceclaimant-survey.pdf [accessed 20.07.2020].Google Scholar
Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) (2018b) Universal Credit Programme Full Business Case Summary, London: Department for Work and Pensions, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/universal-credit-programme-full-business-case-summary/universal-credit-programme-full-business-case-summary [accessed 26.07.2020].Google Scholar
Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) (2019) Universal Credit Official Statistics: 29 April 2013 to 11 July 2019, London: Department for Work and Pensions, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/universal-credit-29-april-2013-to-11-july-2019/universal-credit-statistics-29-april-2013-to-11-july-2019 [accessed 02.05.2020].Google Scholar
Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) (2020a) Annual Report and Accounts 2019–2020, HC401, London: Department for Work and Pensions, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/896268/dwp-annual-report-and-accounts-2019-2020.pdf [accessed 08.12.2020].Google Scholar
Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) (2020b) Fraud and Error in the Benefit System 2019/20, London: Department for Work and Pensions, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/888423/fraud-and-error-stats-release-2019-2020-estimates-revised-29-may-2020.pdf [accessed 10.01.2021].Google Scholar
Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) (2021) Universal Credit Statistics: 29 April 2013 to 10 December 2020, London: Department for Work and Pensions, https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/universal-credit-statistics-29-april-2013-to-10-december-2020 [accessed 10.01.2021].Google Scholar
Duncan Smith, I. (2021) ‘Rishi Sunak must see £20 uplift in Universal Credit as an investment rather than a burden’, The Telegraph, 22 January, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2021/01/22/rishi-sunak-must-see-20-uplift-universal-credit-investment-rather/ [accessed 25.01.2021].Google Scholar
Easton, C. (2014) ‘Welfare that works? The Universal Credit information technology system and disabled people’, Web Journal of Current Legal Issues, 20, 3.Google Scholar
Eubanks, V. (2018) Automating Inequality: How High Tech Tools Profile, Police and Punish the Poor, New York: Picador, St Martin’s Press.Google Scholar
Finn, D. (2018) ‘Why are Britain’s jobcentres disappearing?’, The Conversation, 10 May, https://theconversation.com/why-are-britains-jobcentres-disappearing-91290 [accessed 20.10.2020].Google Scholar
Glick, B. (2018) ‘Thousands of Universal Credit claimants unable to use gov.uk Verify to apply for benefits’, Computer Weekly, 31 January, https://www.computerweekly.com/news/252434188/Thousands-of-Universal-Credit-claimants-unable-to-use-Govuk-Verify-to-apply-for-benefits [accessed 09.07.2020].Google Scholar
Glick, B. (2020) ‘Huge queues for Universal Credit online applications due to coronavirus surge’, Computer Weekly, 24 March, https://www.computerweekly.com/news/252480546/Huge-queues-for-Universal-Credit-online-applications-due-to-coronavirus-surge [accessed 07.10.2020].Google Scholar
Godwin, M. and Lawson, C. (2012) ‘The life and death of child tax credit and working tax credit’, Bath Economics Research Papers, No. 1/12, Bath: Department of Economics, https://purehost.bath.ac.uk/ws/files/9439384/The_life_and_death_of_child_tax_credit.pdf [accessed 10.01.2021].Google Scholar
Griffiths, R., Wood, M., Bennett, F. and Millar, J. (2020) Uncharted Territory: Universal Credit, Couples and Money, Bath: Institute for Policy Research, DOI: doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3906205.Google Scholar
Herd, P. and Moynihan, D. (2018) Administrative Burden; Policymaking by Other Means, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Hitchcock, G. (2012) ‘LGA revise ‘agile’ approach to universal credit’, Government Computing, 10 September, https://www.governmentcomputing.com/central-government/news/newslga-revise-agile-approach-to-universal-credit [accessed 07.07.2020].Google Scholar
House of Commons Work and Pensions Committee (2018) Universal Credit Project Assessment Reviews Fifth Report of Session 2017–19 Report, January, London: House of Commons, https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmworpen/740/740.pdf [accessed 08.08.2020].Google Scholar
House of Commons Work and Pensions Committee (2020) Oral Evidence: DWP’s Response to the Coronavirus Outbreak, HC 178, 23 April, London: House of Commons, https://committees.parliament.uk/oralevidence/303/pdf/ [accessed 22.09.2020].Google Scholar
House of Lords (2020a) Algorithms: Public Sector Decision-Making, Question for Short Debate, House of Lords, 12 February, Hansard, Volume 801, https://hansard.parliament.uk/Lords/2020-02-12/debates/C8998608-FA12-4BFC-BEAE-4057D699FDBD/AlgorithmsPublicSectorDecision-Making [accessed 12.01.2021].Google Scholar
Johnson and Others v SSWP (2020) EWCA Civ 778, Judgement, Secretary of State for Work and Pensions v Johnson et al., Case Nos: CO/1643/2018 CO/1552/2018, https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/johnson-and-others-judgment-final.pdf [accessed 05.01.2021].Google Scholar
JUSTICE and AJC (2021) Reforming Benefits Decision-Making: A Report by JUSTICE and the Administrative Justice Council, London: JUSTICE/AJC.Google Scholar
McKinnon, S. (2020) ‘A new digital function for DWP’, DWP Digital, blog, 29 September, https://dwpdigital.blog.gov.uk/2020/09/29/a-new-digital-function-for-dwp/ [accessed 21.12.2020].Google Scholar
Meers, J. (2020) “Fatally upsetting the computer’: universal credit, earned income, and the demands of automation’, Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law, 42, 4, 520–3.Google Scholar
Millar, J. and Bennett, F. (2017) ‘Universal Credit: assumptions, contradictions and virtual reality’, Social Policy and Society, 16, 2, 169–182.Google Scholar
Millar, J. and Whiteford, P. (2020) ‘Timing it right or timing it wrong: how should income-tested benefits deal with changes in circumstances?’, Journal of Poverty and Social Justice, 28, 1, 3–20.Google Scholar
National Audit Office (NAO) (2011) The Cabinet Office: Implementing the Government ICT Strategy: Six-Month Review of Progress, HC 1594, Session 2010–2012, 21 December, National Audit Office, https://www.nao.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/10121594.pdf [accessed25d.07.2020].Google Scholar
National Audit Office (NAO) (2018) Rolling Out Universal Credit, Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General, 15 June, National Audit Office, https://www.nao.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Rolling-out-Universal-Credit.pdf [accessed 06.09.2020].Google Scholar
National Audit Office (NAO) (2020) Universal Credit Advances Fraud, Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General Department for Work and Pensions HC 105 Session 2019–2021, https://www.nao.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Universal-Credit-advances-fraud.pdf [accessed 25.09.2020].Google Scholar
Office for Budget Responsibility (OBR) (2020) ‘Interpreting surprises in spending on UC and its legacy equivalents’, 16 March, Office for Budget Responsibility, https://obr.uk/box/interpreting-surprises-in-spending-on-uc-and-its-legacy-equivalents/ [accessed 08.09.2020].Google Scholar
Patrick, R. and Simpson, M. (2020) ‘Universal Credit Could Be a Lifeline in Northern Ireland, but It Must be Designed with People Who Use It, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation, https://www.jrf.org.uk/report/universal-credit-could-be-lifeline-northern-ireland-it-must-be-designed-people-who-use-it [accessed 08.01.2021].Google Scholar
Pope, R. (2020) Universal Credit: Digital Welfare, Richard Pope Consulting Ltd, https://pt2.works/files/universal-credit.pdf [accessed 12.12.2020].Google Scholar
Public Accounts Committee (2020) Oral Evidence: Department for Work and Pensions Accounts 2019–20, HC 681, 24 September, House of Commons, https://committees.parliament.uk/oralevidence/987/pdf/ [accessed 15.12.2020].Google Scholar
Roberts, H. (2020) ‘What digital with purpose means for DWP’s customers’, DWP Digital, 8 December, https://dwpdigital.blog.gov.uk/2020/12/08/what-digital-with-purpose-means-for-dwps-customers/ [accessed 15.12.2020].Google Scholar
Rotik, M. and Perry, L. (2011) Perceptions of Welfare Reform and Universal Credit, DWP Research Report No. 778, London: Department for Work and Pensions, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/214563/rrep778.pdf [accessed 10.12.2020].Google Scholar
Rotik, M. and Perry, L. (2012) Insight to Support Universal Credit User-Centred Design, DWP Research Report, London: Department for Work and Pensions, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/192592/rrep799.pdf [accessed 08.07.2020].Google Scholar
Say, M. (2020) ‘DWP to create new digital function’, UK Authority News, 30 September, https://www.ukauthority.com/articles/dwp-to-create-new-digital-function/ [accessed 14.10.2020].Google Scholar
Schou, J. and Hjelholt, M. (2019) ‘Digitalizing the welfare state: citizenship discourses in Danish digitalization strategies from 2002 to 2015’, Critical Policy Studies, 13, 1, 3–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Science and Technology Select Committee (2018) Algorithms in Decision Making, London: House of Commons, https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmsctech/351/35102.htm [accessed 10.07.2020].Google Scholar
Taylor-Gooby, P. and Martin, R. (2008) ‘Trends in sympathy for the poor’, in Park, A., Curtice, J., Thomson, K., Phillips, M., Johnson, M. C. and Clery, E. (eds.), British Social Attitudes: The 24th Report, London: Sage, 229–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timmins, N. (2018) Universal Credit: From Disaster to Recovery?, London: Institute for Government, https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/5064%20IFG%20-%20Universal%20Credit%20Publication%20WEB%20AW.pdf [accessed 15.08.2020].Google Scholar
Timmins, N. (2020a) ‘Coronavirus is giving Universal Credit its moment in the sun’, Institute for Government, Blog, 2 April, https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/blog/universal-credit-coronavirus [accessed 14.09.2020].Google Scholar
Timmins, N. (2020b) ‘Credit where it is due: Universal Credit during the coronavirus lockdown’, Institute for Government, Blog, 4 May, https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/blog/universal-credit-dwp-coronavirus [accessed 15.08.2020].Google Scholar
Trendall, S. (2017) ‘Interview: DWP’s Kit Collingwood-Richardson on One Team Government and bridging Whitehall’s digital divide’, PublicTechnology.net, 29 August, https://www.publictechnology.net/articles/features/interview-dwps-kit-collingwood-richardson-one-team-government-and-bridging [accessed 16.08.2020].Google Scholar
Parliament, UK (2021) ‘Universal Credit: maladministration’, Department for Work and Pensions, written question answered on 13 January, https://questions-statements.parliament.uk/written-questions/detail/2021-01-08/134451 [accessed 03.02.2021].Google Scholar
Wood, M. (2021) ‘Childcare costs and Universal Credit: awareness, affordability and the challenge of an embedded system’, Journal of Poverty and Social Justice, 29, 2, 203–20.Google Scholar