Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-cphqk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-26T21:28:55.607Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Endangered archaeology in Libya: recording damage and destruction

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 August 2017

Louise Rayne ,
Nichole Sheldrick  and
Julia Nikolaus
Louise Rayne
Affiliation:
School of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Leicester, UK.
Nichole Sheldrick
Affiliation:
School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, UK.
Julia Nikolaus
Affiliation:
School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, UK.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Libya's archaeological heritage is under serious threat, not only because of recent conflict, but also due to other factors such as urban expansion, agricultural development, natural resource prospection, vandalism, looting and natural deterioration. The Endangered Archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa Project (EAMENA) has developed a database and methodology using remote sensing and other techniques to rapidly document archaeological sites and any disturbances and threats to them in Libya and across the MENA region. This paper will demonstrate this methodology and highlight the various types of disturbances and threats affecting the archaeology of Libya, concentrating on four case studies in different areas of the country, including the coastal plain around Zliten, a section of the Wadi Sofeggin in the pre-desert, and the desert oases of Jufra and Murzuq.

إن التراث الأثري الليبي تحت التهديد، ليس فقط بسبب الصراع الدائر ولكن لأسباب أخرى مثل الامتداد العمراني والتطور الزراعي والتنقيب عن المصادر الطبيعية والتخريب المتعمد والنهب والتدهور الطبيعي . إن مشروع الآثار المعرضة للخطر في الشرق الأوسط وشمال إفريقيا قد طور قاعدة بيانات وآلية عمل باستخدام الاستشعار عن بعد وتقنيات أخرى من أجل التوثيق السريع للمواقع الأثرية وأية اضطرابات وتهديدات تتعرض لها في ليبيا وفي الشرق الأوسط وشمال إفريقيا. ستوضح هذه الورقة هذه الآلية والأنواع المختلفة للاضطرابات والتهديدات التي تؤثر على آثار ليبيا، والتركيز على أربع حالات دراسية لمناطق مختلفة من الدولة، بما فيها السهول الساحلية حول زليتين وجزء من وادي سوفقين قبل الصحراء وواحتي جفرا ومرزق .

Type
Part 1: Conference proceedings ‘Libyan Antiquities at Risk’
Information
Libyan Studies , Volume 48 , November 2017 , pp. 23 - 49
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for Libyan Studies 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abdulkariem, A. 2013. Involving the local community in the protection of the heritage and archaeology of Cyrene. Libyan Studies 44: 103–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abdulkariem, A., and Bennett, P. 2014. Libyan heritage under threat: the case of Cyrene. Libyan Studies 45: 155–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allan, J. A., and Richards, T. S. 1983. Use of satellite imagery in archaeological surveys. Libyan Studies 14: 4–8.Google Scholar
Aurigemma, S. 1926. I Mosaici di Zliten. Società editrice d'arte illustrate, Rome and Milan.Google Scholar
Barker, G., Gilbertson, D., Jones, B., and Mattingly, D. 1996a. Farming the Desert: The UNESCO Libyan Valleys Archaeological Survey. Volume 1: Synthesis. The Society for Libyan Studies, London.Google Scholar
Barker, G., Gilbertson, D., Jones, B., and Mattingly, D. 1996b. Farming the Desert: The UNESCO Libyan Valleys Archaeological Survey. Volume 2: Gazetteer and Pottery. Society for Libyan Studies, London.Google Scholar
Bennett, P., and Barker, G. 2011. Protecting Libya's archaeological heritage. The African Archaeological Review 28.1: 5–25.Google Scholar
Bewley, R., Wilson, A. I., Kennedy, D., Mattingly, D. J., Banks, R., Bishop, M., Bradbury, J., Cunliffe, E., Fradley, M., Jennings, R., Mason, R., Rayne, L., Sterry, M., Sheldrick, N., and Zerbini, A. 2016. Endangered archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa: introducing the EAMENA Project. In Campana, S., Scopigno, R., Carpentiero, G., and Cirillo, M. (eds), CAA2015. Keep the Revolution Going: Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Conference on Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. Archaeopress, Oxford: 919–32.Google Scholar
Cifani, G., Munzi, M., Felici, F., and Cirelli, E. 2003. Ricerche topografiche nel territorio di Leptis Magna: rapporto preliminare. In Khanoussi, M. (ed.), L'Afrique du Nord antique et medieval: protohistoire, les cites de l'Afrique du Nord, fouiles et prospections récentes. VIIIe Colloque International sur l'histoire et l'archéologiea de l'Afrique du Nord (1er Colloque international sur l'histoire et l'archéologie du Maghreb). Institut national du patrimoine, Tunis: 395–414.Google Scholar
Cirelli, E., Felici, F., and Munzi, M. 2012. Insediamenti fortificati nel territorio di Leptis Magna tra III e XI secolo. In Galetti, P. (ed.), Paesaggi, Comunità, Villaggi Medievali. Atti del Convegno internazionale di studio. Bologna, 14–16 gennaio 2010. Fondazione Centro Italiano di Studi sull'Alto Medioevo, Spoleto: 763–74.Google Scholar
Cooper, A., and Green, C. 2016. Embracing the complexities of ‘big data’ in archaeology: the case of the English Landscape and Identities Project. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 23.1: 271–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuttler, R., Gaffney, C., Gaffney, V., Goodchild, H., Howard, A., and Sears, G. 2009. Changing perspectives on the city of Cyrene, Libya: remote sensing and the management of the buried archaeological resource. ArcheoSciences 33: 65–67.Google Scholar
Donoghue, D. N. M., Galiatsatos, N., Philip, G., and Beck, A. R. 2002. Satellite imagery for archaeological applications: a case study from the Orontes Valley. In Bewley, R. H. and Raczkowski, W. (eds), Aerial Archaeology: Developing Future Practice. IOS Press, Amsterdam: 211–24.Google Scholar
Dorsett, J. E., Gilbertson, D. D., Hunt, C. O., and Barker, G. W. W. 1984. The UNESCO Libyan Valleys Survey VIII: image analysis of Landsat satellite data for archaeological and environmental surveys. Libyan Studies 15: 71–80.Google Scholar
Edwards, D. N. 2001. The archaeology of the southern Fazzan and prospects for future research. Libyan Studies 32: 49–66.Google Scholar
Eldblom, L. 1968. Structure foncière: organisation et structure sociale: une étude comparative sur la vie socio-économique dans les trois oasis libyennes de Ghat, Mourzouk et particulièrement Ghadamès. Lund University Publications, Lund.Google Scholar
el-Hesnawi, H. W. 1990. Fazzan under the Rule of Awlad Muhammad: A Study in Political, Economic, Social and Intellectual History. Center for African Research and Study, Sabha.Google Scholar
Ensoli, S. (ed.). 2012. For the Preservation of the Cultural Heritage in Libya: A Dialogue among Institutions. Proceedings of Conference, 1–2 July 2011, Monumental Complex of Belvedere, San Leucio, Caserta. Fabrizio Serra Editore, Pisa.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, M., and Megerisi, T. 2015. Libya: Whose Land Is It? Property Rights and Transition. Legatum Institute, London. Available at: www.li.com/events/libya-whose-land-is-it (accessed 15 February 2017).Google Scholar
Fontana, S., Munzi, M., and Ricci, G. 1996. Insediamenti agricoli di età ellenistica e romana nell'area dell'uadi Bendar (Leptis Magna). Libya Antiqua (n.s.) 2: 67–72.Google Scholar
Fookes, P. G., Stoner, J. R., and Mackintosh, J. 1993. Great Man-Made River Project, Libya, Phase 1: a case study on the influence of climate and technology on concrete technology. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology 26: 25–60.Google Scholar
Foucher, L. 1964. Sur les mosaïques de Zliten. Libya Antiqua 1: 9–20.Google Scholar
Gentilucci, I. 1933. Resti di antichi edifici lungo l'uàdi Sofeggìn. Africa Italiana 5: 172–87.Google Scholar
Goodchild, R. G. 1950. The Limes Tripolitanus II. Journal of Roman Studies 40: 30–38.Google Scholar
Huete, A. R. 1988. A soil adjusted vegetation index. Remote Sensing of Environment 25: 295–309.Google Scholar
Hussein, A. 2013. Ancient Libyan necropolis threatened by real estate speculators. The Observers. 23 August. Available at: http://observers.france24.com/content/20130823-ancient-libyan-necropolis-threatened-cyrene (accessed 15 February 2017).Google Scholar
Kane, S. 2015. Archaeology and cultural heritage in post-revolution Libya. Near Eastern Archaeology 78.3: 204–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kingsley, P. 2015. ISIS vandalism has Libya fearing for its cultural treasures. The Guardian. 7 March. Available at: www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/07/isis-destroy-libya-cultural-treasures (accessed 2 March 2017).Google Scholar
Leitch, V., and Nikolaus, J. 2015. The Society for Libyan Studies archive: past, present and future. Libyan Studies 46: 151–56.Google Scholar
LeQuesne, C., Basell, L. S., and Sheibani, R. 2010. Archaeology in the Sirte Basin: preliminary results of mitigation surveys carried out for Shell 2007–2009. Libyan Studies 41: 7–32.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D. J. 2012. Conservation issues in the Libyan oasis belts. In Ensoli, S. (ed.), For the Preservation of the Cultural Heritage in Libya: A Dialogue among Institutions. Proceedings of Conference (1–2 July 2011, Monumental Complex of Belvedere, San Leucio, Caserta). Fabrizio Serra Editore, Pisa: 27–32.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D. J., al-Aghab, S., Ahmed, M., Moussa, F., Sterry, M., and Wilson, A. 2010. DMP X: survey and landscape conservation issues around the Taqallit headland. Libyan Studies 41: 105–32.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D. J., and Sterry, M. 2013. The first towns in the central Sahara. Antiquity 87: 503–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mattingly, D. J., Dore, J. N., Edwards, D., and Hawthorne, J. 2003. The Archaeology of Fazzan. Volume 1: Synthesis. The Society for Libyan Studies, London.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D. J., Daniels, C. M., Dore, J. N., Edwards, D., and Hawthorne, J. 2007. The Archaeology of Fazzan. Volume 2: Site Gazetteer, Pottery and Other Survey Finds. The Society for Libyan Studies, London.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D. J., Sterry, M., and Leitch, V. 2013. Fortified farms and defended villages of Late Roman and Late Antique Africa. Antiquité Tardive 21: 167–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munzi, M. 2010. Il territorio di Leptis Magna. Insediamenti rurali, strutture produttive e rapporti con la città. In Tantillo, I. and Bigi, F. (eds), Leptis Magna: una città e le sue iscrizioni in epoca tardoromana. Università degli Studi di Cassino, Cassino: 45–80.Google Scholar
Munzi, M., Felici, F., Cifani, G., and Lucarini, G. 2005. Leptis Magna: città e campagna dall'origine alla scomparsa del sistema sedentario antico. Scienze dell'Antichità 12: 433–71.Google Scholar
Munzi, M., Felici, F., Cifani, G., Cirelli, E., Gaudiosi, E., Lucarini, G., and Matug, J. 2004. A topographic research sample in the territory of Lepcis Magna: Silin. Libyan Studies 35: 11–66.Google Scholar
Munzi, M., Felici, F., Cirelli, E., Schingo, G., and Zocchi, A. 2010. Il territorio di Leptis Magna: recognizioni tra Ras el-Mergheb e Ras el-Hammam (2007). L'Africa Romana 18: 723–46.Google Scholar
Munzi, M., Felici, F., Matoug, J., Sjöström, I., and Zocchi, A. 2016. The Lepcitanian landscape across the ages: the survey between Ras el-Mergheb and Ras el-Hammam (2007, 2009, 2013). Libyan Studies 47: 67–116.Google Scholar
Munzi, M., Felici, F., Sjöström, I., and Zocchi, A. 2014. La Tripolitania rurale tardoantica, medieval e ottoman alla luce delle recenti indagini archeologiche territoriali nella regione di Leptis Magna. Archeologia Medievale 41: 215–45.Google Scholar
Musso, L., Baldoni, D., Bianchi, B., Calì, M. G., Davidde, B., Di Vita-Evrard, G., Munzi, M., Petriaggi, R., Pinna Caboni, B., Ponti, G., and Shebani, R. 2010. Missione Archeologica dell'Università Roma Tre, 1998–2007. Libya Antiqua (n.s.) 5: 49–78.Google Scholar
Nebbia, N., Leone, A., Bockmann, R., Hddad, M., Abdouli, H., Masoud, A. M., Elkendi, N., Hamoud, H., Adam, S., and Khatab, M. 2016. Developing a collaborative strategy to manage and preserve cultural heritage during the Libyan conflict: the case of the Gebel Nāfusa. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 23.4: 971–88.Google Scholar
Parrish, D. 1985. The date of the mosaics from Zliten. Antiquités africaines 21: 137–58.Google Scholar
Rohlfs, G. 1881. Voyages & Explorations au Sahara, Tome V: Koufra – Les oases de Djofra et de Djalo 1878–1879. Karthala, Paris.Google Scholar
Scarin, E. 1938. La Giofra e Zella: Le Oasi del 29 degrees parallel della Libia occidentale. G. C. Sansoni, Florence.Google Scholar
Sheldrick, N. 2016. Building the countryside: a regional perspective on the architecture and settlement of rural Tripolitania from the 1st c . BC to the 7th c. AD. Unpublished DPhil thesis, University of Oxford.Google Scholar
Sterry, M., and Mattingly, D. J. 2011. DMP XIII: reconnaissance survey of archaeological sites in the Murzuq area. Libyan Studies 42: 89–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sterry, M., and Mattingly, D. J. 2013. Desert Migrations Project XVII: further AMS dates for historic settlements from Fazzan, south-west Libya. Libyan Studies 44: 12–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sterry, M., Mattingly, D. J., and Higham, T. 2012. Desert Migrations Project XVI: radiocarbon dates from the Murzuq region, southern Libya. Libyan Studies 43: 137–47.Google Scholar
White, K., Brooks, N., Drake, N., Charlton, M., and McLaren, S. 2003. Monitoring vegetation change in desert oases by remote sensing; a case study in the Libyan Fazzan. Libyan Studies 34: 153–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkinson, T. J. 1997. Tell Beydar Survey. The Oriental Institute: 19–28.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, T. J., and Rayne, L. 2010. Hydraulic landscapes and imperial power in the Near East. Water History 2: 115–44.Google Scholar
Wilson, A. I. 2009. Foggaras in ancient North Africa: or how to marry a Berber princess. In Wilson, A. I. (ed.), Controle et distribution de l'eau dans le Maghreb antique et medieval. Collection de l’École française de Rome, Rome: 19–39.Google Scholar
Wilson, A. I., and Mattingly, D. J. 2003. Irrigation technologies: foggaras, wells and field systems. In Mattingly, D. J. (ed.), The Archaeology of Fazzan. Volume 1: Synthesis. The Society for Libyan Studies, London: 235–78.Google Scholar
Wilson, A. I., Mattingly, D., and Sterry, M. Forthcoming. The diffusion of irrigation technologies in the Sahara in antiquity: settlement, trade and migration. In Cuénod, A., Duckworth, C., and Mattingly, D. J. (eds), Mobile Technologies in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond. Trans-Saharan Archaeology Volume III (Series editor Mattingly, D. J.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge; The Society for Libyan Studies, London.Google Scholar
Zerbini, A., 2016. Designing our database. Available at: http://eamena.arch.ox.ac.uk/designing-our-database/ (accessed 1 February 2017).Google Scholar