Hostname: page-component-6bb9c88b65-6scc2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-07-22T23:41:12.919Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Climate Change and Wine: A Review of the Economic Implications*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 June 2016

Orley Ashenfelter  and
Karl Storchmann
Orley Ashenfelter
Affiliation:
Department of Economics, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544-2098; e-mail: c6789@princeton.edu.
Karl Storchmann
Affiliation:
Department of Economics, New York University, 19 W. 4th Street, New York, NY 10012, and KEDGE Business School, Bordeaux; e-mail: karl.storchmann@nyu.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In this article, we provide an overview of the extensive literature on the impact of weather and climate on grapes and wine with the goal of describing how climate change is likely to affect their production. We start by discussing the physical impact of weather on vine phenology, berry composition, and yields and then survey the economic literature measuring the effects of temperature on wine quality, prices, costs, and profits and how climate change will affect these. We also describe what has been learned so far about possible adaptation strategies for grape growers that would allow them to mitigate the economic effects of climate change. We conclude that climate change is likely to produce winners and losers, with the winners being those closer to the North and South Poles. There are also likely to be some substantial short-run costs as growers adapt to climate change. Nevertheless, wine making has survived through thousands of years of recorded history, a history that includes large climate changes. (JEL Classifications: Q54, Q13)

Keywords

adaptationclimate changeglobal warmingviticulturewine

Information

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Wine Economics , Volume 11 , Issue 1 , May 2016 , pp. 105 - 138
Copyright
Copyright © American Association of Wine Economists 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

*

This paper is an extended and updated version of Ashenfelter and Storchmann (2016). We are very grateful to Robert Stavins and Charles Kosltand for suggestions and comments on an earlier draft. We thank Gregory Gambetta for many helpful comments and corrections regarding the scientific part of this paper, and Suzanne Leonard for many improvements in the details of the paper's exposition. We are also indebted to two anonymous referees.

References

Adams, R.M., Wu, J., and Houston, L.L. (2003). The effects of climate change on yields and water use of major California crops. In Climate Change and California. Sacramento, CA: California Energy Commission, Public Interest Energy Research (PIER). Appendix IX. Accessed November 30, 2015, at http://www.energy.ca.gov/reports/500-03-058/2003-10-31_500-03-058CF_A09.PDF.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, E.A., Davey, P.A., Bernacchi, C.J., Dermody, O.C., Heaton, E.A., Moore, D.J., Morgan, P.B., et al. (2002). A meta-analysis of elevated [CO2] effects on soybean (Glycine max) physiology, growth and yield. Global Change Biology, 8(8), 695–709.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alston, J.M., Fuller, K.B., Lapsley, J.T., and Soleas, G. (2011). Too much of a good thing? Causes and consequences of increases in sugar content of California wine grapes. Journal of Wine Economics, 6(2), 135–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alston, J.M., Fuller, K.B., Lapsley, J.T., Soleas, G., and Tumber, K.P. (2015). Splendide mendax: False label claims about high and rising alcohol content of wine. Journal of Wine Economics, 10(3), 275–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amerine, M.A., and Winkler, A.J. (1944). Composition and quality of musts and wines of California grapes. Hilgardia, 15(6), 493–675.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Antoy, L., Ashenfelter, O., and Storchmann, K. (2010). Global warming's impact on the wine industry on the European Union. Mimeo. Presentation at 4th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Wine Economists in Davis, California, June 25–28, 2010.Google Scholar
Ashenfelter, O. (1986). Why we do it. Liquid Assets, 3, 1–7.Google Scholar
Ashenfelter, O. (1987a). Objective vintage charts: Red Bordeaux and California Cabernet Sauvignon. Liquid Assets, 3, 8–13.Google Scholar
Ashenfelter, O. (1987b). Vintage advice: Is 1986 another outstanding Bordeaux vintage? (No! And you heard it here first.). Liquid Assets, 2, 1–7.Google Scholar
Ashenfelter, O. (1990). Just how good are wine writers’ predictions? (Surprise! The recent vintages are rated highest!). Liquid Assets, 7, 1–9.Google Scholar
Ashenfelter, O. (2010). Predicting the quality and prices of Bordeaux wines. Journal of Wine Economics, 5(1), 40–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashenfelter, O., Ashmore, D., and Lalonde, R. (1995). Bordeaux wine vintage quality and the weather. Chance, 8(4), 7–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashenfelter, O., and Storchmann, K. (2010a). Measuring the economic effect of global warming on viticulture using auction, retail, and wholesale prices. Review of Industrial Organization, 37(1), 51–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashenfelter, O., and Storchmann, K. (2010b). Using a hedonic models of solar radiation and weather to assess the economic effect of climate change: The case of Mosel Valley vineyards. Review of Economics and Statistics, 92(2), 333–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashenfelter, O., and Storchmann, K. (2016). The economics of wine, weather, and climate change. Review of Environmental Economics and Policy, 10(1), 25–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, B.C., Kundzewicz, Z.W., Wu, S., and Palutikof, J.P. (Eds.). (2008). Climate change and water. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Technical Paper VI. Geneva: IPCC Secretariat.Google Scholar
Bindi, M., Fibbi, L., Gozzini, B., Orlandini, S., and Miglietta, F. (1996). Modelling the impact of future climate scenarios on yield and yield variability on grapevine. Climate Research, 7(3), 213–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bindi, M., Fibbi, L., and Miglietta, F. (2001). Free Air CO2 Enrichment (FACE) of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.): II. Growth and quality of grape and wine in response to elevated CO2 concentrations. European Journal of Agronomy, 14(2), 145–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bindi, M., Raschi, A., Lanini, M., Miglietta, F., and Tognetti, R. (2005). Physiological and yield responses of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) exposed to elevated CO2 concentrations in free air CO2 enrichment (FACE). Journal of Crop Improvement, 13(1–2), 345–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brázdil, R., Pfister, C., Wanner, H., Storch, H. von, and Luterbacher, J. (2005). Historical climatology in Europe - The state of the art. Climatic Change, 70(3), 363–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byron, R.P., and Ashenfelter, O. (1995). Predicting the quality of an unborn Grange. Economic Record, 71(1), 40–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camargo, U.A., Maia, J.D.G., Ritschel, P.S., and Revers, L.F. (2008). Grapevine breeding for tropical and subtropical environments in Brazil. Bulletin de l'OIV, 81(923–925), 5–10.Google Scholar
Chevet, J.-M., Lecocq, S., and Visser, M. (2011). Climate, grapevine phenology, wine production, and prices: Pauillac (1800–2009). American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings, 101(3), 142–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, S.D., Tarara, J.M., Gambetta, G.A., Matthews, M.A., and Kennedy, J.A. (2012). Impact of diurnal temperature variation on grape berry development, proanthocyanidin accumulation, and the expression of flavonoid pathway genes. Journal of Experimental Botany, 63(7), 2655–2665.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Commission of the European Communities. (2007). Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on Management of Planting Rights Pursuant to Chapter I of Title II of Council Regulation (EC) No 1493/1999. COM(2007) 370 final. Brussels, Belgium: Commission of the European Communities.Google Scholar
Contreras, A., Hidalgo, C., Henschke, P.A., Chambers, P.J., Curtin, C., and Varela, C. (2014). Evaluation of non-saccharomyces yeast for the reduction of alcohol content in wine. Applied and Environmental Biology, 80(5), 1670–1678.Google Scholar
Cooper, M.L., Klonsky, K.M., and De Moura, R.L. (2012). 2012 Sample costs to establish a vineyard and produce winegrapes: Cabernet Sauvignon. North Coast Region: Napa County. Davis: University of California Cooperative Extension. Accessed November 30, 2015, at http://coststudies.ucdavis.edu/files/WinegrapeNC2012.pdf.Google Scholar
Daugherty, M.P., Bosco, D., and Almeida, R.P.P. (2009). Temperature mediates vector transmission efficiency: Inoculum supply and plant infection dynamics. Annals of Applied Biology, 155(3), 361–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deconinck, K. and Swinnen, J. (2014). The economics of planting rights in wine production. European Review of Agricultural Economics, 42(3), 419–440.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duchêne, E., Huard, F., Dumas, V., Schneider, C., and Merdinoglu, D. (2010). The challenge of adapting grapevine varieties to climate change. Climate Research, 41(3), 193–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
European Commission. (2009). Regions 2020: The climate change challenge for European regions. Background document to commission staff working document SEC(2008) 2868 final. Brussels, Belgium: European Commission, Directorate General for Regional Policy.Google Scholar
European Commission. (2012). The EU system of planting rights: Main rules and effectiveness. Working document. Brussels, Belgium: European Commission, Directorate General of Agriculture and Rural Development. Accessed November 30, 2015, at http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regexpert/index.cfm?do=groupDetail.groupDetailDoc&id=5381&no=6.Google Scholar
Ferrise, R., Trombi, G., Moriondo, M., and Bindi, M. (2016). Climate change and grapevines: A simulation study for the Mediterranean basin. Journal of Wine Economics, 11(1), 88–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fogarty, J.J. (2010). Wine investment and portfolio diversification gains. Journal of Wine Economics, 5(1), 119–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fogarty, J.J., and Sadler, R. (2014). To save or savor: A review of approaches for measuring wine as an investment. Journal of Wine Economics, 9(3), 225–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gambetta, G.A. (2016). Water stress and grape physiology in the context of global climate change. Journal of Wine Economics, 11(1), 168–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García de Cortázar-Atauri, I., Daux, V., Garnier, E., Yiou, P., Viovy, N., Seguin, B., Boursiquot, J.M., Parker, A.K., van Leeuwen, C., and Chuine, I. (2010). Climate reconstructions from grape harvest dates: Methodology and uncertainties. Holocene, 20(4), 599–608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibb, R. (2014). Is yeast the answer to lower-alcohol wines? Wine-Searcher, January 22, http://www.wine-searcher.com/m/2014/01/is-yeast-the-answer-to-lower-alcohol-wines.Google Scholar
Gladstones, J. (1992). Viticulture and Environment. Adelaide, South Australia, Australia: Winetitles.Google Scholar
Haeger, J.W., and Storchmann, K. (2006). Prices of American Pinot Noir wines: Climate, craftsmanship, critics. Agricultural Economics, 35(1), 67–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hannah, L., Roehrdanz, P.R., Ikegami, M., Shepard, A.V., Shaw, M.R., Tabor, G., Zhi, L., Marquet, P.A., and Hijmans, R.J. (2013). Climate change, wine, and conservation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(17), 6907–6912.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoddle, M.S. (2004). The potential adventive geographic range of glassy-winged sharpshooter, Homalodisca coagulata and the grape pathogen Xylella fastidiosa: Implications for California and other grape growing regions of the world. Crop Protection, 23(8), 691–699.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2000). Special Report on Emission Scenarios. Contribution of Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2007a). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2007b). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2013). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group I Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jones, G.V., and Davis, R.E. (2000). Climate influences on grapevine phenology, grape composition, and wine production and quality for Bordeaux, France. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 51(3), 249–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, G.V., Reid, R., and Vilks, A. (2012). Climate, grapes, and wine: Structure and suitability in a variable and changing climate. In Dougherty, P.H. (Ed.), The Geography of Wine: Regions, Terroir and Techniques. New York: Springer, 109–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, G.V., and Storchmann, K.-H. (2001). Wine market prices and investment under uncertainty: An econometric model for Bordeaux Crus Classés. Agricultural Economics, 26(2), 115–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, G.V., White, M.A., Cooper, O.R., and Storchmann, K. (2005). Climate change and global wine quality. Climatic Change, 73(3), 319–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, P.D., and Mann, M.E. (2004). Climate over past millennia. Reviews of Geophysics, 42(2), RG2002. doi:10.1029/2003RG000143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenny, G.J., and Harrison, P.A. (1992). The effects of climate variability and change on grape suitability in Europe. Journal of Wine Research, 3(3), 163–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kimball, B.A., Idso, S.B., Johnson, S., and Rillig, M.C. (2007). Seventeen years of carbon dioxide enrichment of sour orange trees: Final results. Global Change Biology, 13(10), 2171–2183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kliewer, W.M. (1977a). Effect of high temperatures during the bloom-set period on fruit-set, ovule fertility, and berry growth of several grape cultivars. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 28(4), 215–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kliewer, W.M. (1977b). Influence of temperature, solar radiation and nitrogen on coloration and composition of Emperor grapes. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 28(2), 96–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kliewer, W.M., and Torres, R.E. (1972). Effect of controlled day and night temperatures on grape coloration. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 23(2), 71–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kok, D. (2014). A review on grape growing in tropical regions. Turkish Journal of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, special issue 1, 1236–1241.Google Scholar
Kriedemann, P.E., Sward, R.J., and Downton, W.J.S. (1976). Vine response to carbon dioxide enrichment during heat therapy. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 3(5), 605–618.Google Scholar
Lavee, S., and May, P. (1997). Dormancy of grapevine buds – facts and speculation. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 3(1), 31–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lecocq, S., and Visser, M. (2006). Spatial variations in weather conditions and wine prices in Bordeaux. Journal of Wine Economics, 1(2), 114–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Roy Ladurie, E., and Baulant, M. (1981). Grape harvests from the fifteenth through the nineteenth centuries. In Rotberg, R.I., and Rabb, T.K. (Eds.), Climate and History: Studies in Interdisciplinary History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University, 259–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lobell, D.B., Cahill, K.N., and Field, C.B. (2007). Historical effects of temperature and precipitation on California crop yields. Climatic Change, 81(2), 187–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lobell, D., Field, C., Cahill, K., and Bonfils, C. (2006). California Perennial Crop Yields: Model Projections with Climate and Crop Uncertainties. Livermore, CA: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.Google Scholar
Magarey, P.A., Wachtel, M.F., and Emmett, R.W. (1994). Disease management - overview. In Nicholas, P., Magarey, P.A., and Wachtel, M.F. (Eds.), Diseases and Pests. Grape Production Series No. 1. Adelaide, South Australia, Australia: Winetitles, 75–80.Google Scholar
Maixner, M., and Holz, B. (2003). Risks by invasive species for viticulture. Schriftenreihe des Bundesministeriums für Verbraucherschutz, Ernährung und Landwirtschaft, Reihe A, Angewandte Wissenschaft, 498, 154–164.Google Scholar
Mann, M.E., Bradley, R.S., and Hughes, M.K. (1999). Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the past millennium: Inferences, uncertainties, and limitations. Geophysical Research Letters, 26(6), 759–762.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markham, D. (1997). 1855: A History of the Bordeaux Classification. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Marx, K. (1843). Rechtfertigung des ++-Korrespondenten von der Mosel [Justification of the correspondent from the Mosel]. Rheinische Zeitung, Nos. 15, 17, 18, 19, and 20 (January 15, 17, 18, 19, and 20).Google Scholar
Masset, P., and Henderson, C. (2010). Wine as an alternative asset class. Journal of Wine Economics, 5(1), 87–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendelsohn, R., Nordhaus, W.D., and Shaw, D. (1994). The impact of global warming on agriculture: A Ricardian analysis. American Economic Review, 84(4), 753–771.Google Scholar
Met Office Hadley Centre. (2012). Met Office Hadley Centre Central England Temperature Data. Accessed November 30, 2015, at http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/hadobs/hadcet/data/download.html.Google Scholar
Mira de Orduña, R. (2010). Climate change associated effects on grape and wine quality and production. Food Research International, 43(7), 1844–1855.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moberg, A., Sonechkin, D.M., Holmgren, K., Datsenko, N.M., and Karlén, W. (2005). Highly variable Northern Hemisphere temperatures reconstructed from low- and high-resolution proxy data. Nature, 433, 613–617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moutinho-Pereira, J., Gonçalves, B., Bacelar, E., Cunha, J.B., Coutinho, J., and Correira, C.M. (2009). Effects of elevated CO2 on grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.): Physiological and yield attributes. Vitis, 48(4), 159–165.Google Scholar
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2016). Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. Accessed November 30, 2015, at http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/.Google Scholar
Nemani, R.R., White, M.A., Cayan, D.R., Jones, G.V., Running, S.W., Coughlan, J.C., and Peterson, D.L. (2001). Asymmetric warming over coastal California and its impact on the premium wine industry. Climate Research, 19, 25–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oczkowski, E. (2016). The effect of weather on wine quality and prices: An Australian spatial analysis. Journal of Wine Economics, 11(1), 48–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (OIV). (2013). Statistical Report on World Vitiviniculture 2012. Paris: OIV.Google Scholar
Pfister, C. (1988). Variations in the spring-summer climate of Central Europe from the High Middle Ages to 1850. In Wanner, H., and Siegenthaler, U. (Eds.), Long and Short Term Variability of Climate. Berlin: Springer, 57–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Possingham, J.V. (2004). On the growing of grapevines in the tropics. Acta Horticulturae, 662, 39–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Possingham, J.V., Clingeleffer, P.R., and Kerridge, G.H. (1990). Breeding grapevines for tropical environments. Vitis, special issue, 29, 169–177.Google Scholar
Robinson, J. (Ed.) (2006). The Oxford Companion to Wine, 3rd ed.Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Roehrdanz, P.R., and Hannah, L. (2016). Climate change, California wine, and wildlife habitat. Journal of Wine Economics, 11(1), 69–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sadras, V.O., Bubner, R., and Moran, M.A. (2012). A large-scale, open-top system to increase temperature in realistic vineyard conditions. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 154–155, 187–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salinari, F., Giosue, S., Tubiello, F.N., Rettori, A., Rossi, V., Spanna, F., Rosenzweig, C., and Gullino, M.L. (2006). Downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola) epidemics on grapevine under climate change. Global Change Biology, 12(7), 1299–1307.Google Scholar
Sanning, L.W., Shaffer, S., and Sharratt, J.M. (2008). Bordeaux wine as a financial investment. Journal of Wine Economics, 3(1), 51–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlenker, W., and Roberts, M.J. (2009). Nonlinear temperature effects indicate severe damages to U.S. crop yields under climate change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(37), 15594–15598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultz, H.R. (2000). Climate change and viticulture: A European perspective on climatology, carbon dioxide and UV-B effects. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 6(1), 2–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultz, H.R. (2016). Global climate change, sustainability, and some challenges for grape and wine production. Journal of Wine Economics, 11(1), 181–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultz, H.R., and Stoll, M. (2010). Some critical issues in environmental physiology of grapevines: Future challenges and current limitations. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 16(s1), 4–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smart, R., and Robinson, M. (1991). Sunlight into Wine: A Handbook for Winegrape Canopy Management. Adelaide, South Australia, Australia: Winetitles.Google Scholar
Statistisches Bundesamt (1997). Landwirtschaftliche Bodennutzung - Rebflächen - Fachserie 3 Reihe 3.1. Wiesbaden, Germany: Statistisches Bundesamt.Google Scholar
Statistisches Bundesamt (2015). Landwirtschaftliche Bodennutzung - Rebflächen - Fachserie 3 Reihe 3.1. Wiesbaden, Germany: Statistisches Bundesamt.Google Scholar
Storchmann, K. (2005). English weather and Rhine wine quality: An ordered probit model. Journal of Wine Research, 16(2), 105–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Storchmann, K. (2012). Wine economics. Journal of Wine Economics, 7(1), 1–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Urhausen, S., Brienen, S., Kapala, A., and Simmer, C. (2011). Climatic conditions and their impact on viticulture in the Upper Moselle region. Climatic Change, 109(3), 349–373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Leeuwen, C., and Darriet, P. (2016). Impact of climate change on viticulture and wine quality. Journal of Wine Economics, 11(1), 150–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Leeuwen, C., Schultz, H.R., Garcia de Cortazar-Atauri, I., Duchêne, E., Ollat, N., Pieri, P., Bois, B., et al. (2013). Why climate change will not dramatically decrease viticultural suitability in main wine-producing areas by 2050. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(33), E3051–E3052.Google Scholar
Vierra, G. (2004). Pretenders at the table – Are table wines no longer food friendly? Wine Business Monthly, 11(7), July 2004.Google Scholar
Waldau, E. (1977). Der historische Weinbau im nordöstlichen Mitteleuropa. PhD dissertation, Eberhard-Karls-Universität zu Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.Google Scholar
Walker, R., and Clingeleffer, P. (2009). Rootstock attributes and selection for Australian conditions. Australian Viticulture, 13(4), 69–76.Google Scholar
Webb, L.B. (2006). The impact of projected greenhouse gas-induced climate change on the Australian wine industry. PhD dissertation, Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, Institute of Land and Food Resources, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.Google Scholar
Webb, L.B., Clingeleffer, P.R., and Tyerman, S.D. (2011). The genetic envelope of winegrape vines: Potential for adaptation to future climate challenges. In Yadav, S.S., Redden, R.J., Hatfield, J.L., Lotze-Campen, H., and Hall, A.E. (Eds.), Crop Adaptation to Climate Change. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 464–481.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, L.B, Watt, A., Hill, T., Whiting, J., Wigg, F., Dunn, G., Needs, S., and Barlow, S. (2009). Extreme Heat: Managing Grapevine Response. Documenting Regional and Inter-regional Variation of Viticultural Impact and Management Input Relating to the 2009 Heatwave in South-Eastern Australia. Melbourne, Australia: The University of Melbourne. Accessed November 30, 2015, at http://www.landfood.unimelb.edu.au/vitum/Heatwave.pdf.Google Scholar
Webb, L.B., Whetton, P.H., and Barlow, E.W.R. (2007). Modelled impact of future climate change on the phenology of winegrapes in Australia. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 13(3), 165–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, W. (1980). Die Entwicklung der nördlichen Weinbaugrenze in Europa. Forschungen zur deutschen Landeskunde, Bd. 216. Trier, Germany: Zentralausschuß für deutsche Landeskunde.Google Scholar
White, M.A., Diffenbaugh, N.S., Jones, G.V., Pal, J.S., and Giorgi, F. (2006). Extreme heat reduces and shifts United States premium wine production in the 21st century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(30), 11217–11222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wine Stats. (2014). Compositional Changes to the Vineyard in England & Wales. Accessed August 31, 2015, at http://www.winestats.info/composition-vineyards-england/.Google Scholar
Winkler, A.J., Cook, J.A., Kliewer, W.M., and Lider, L.A. (1974). General Viticulture, 2nd ed.Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, D., and Anderson, K. (2006). What determines the future value of an icon wine? New evidence from Australia. Journal of Wine Economics, 1(2), 141–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar