Hostname: page-component-54dcc4c588-dbm8p Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-09-28T16:07:37.283Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Alcohol, Alcoholism and Conditioning: A Review of the Literature and Some Theoretical Considerations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 February 2018

Cyril M. Franks
Cyril M. Franks*
Affiliation:
University of London, Institute of Psychiatry, Maudsley Hospital
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Alcoholism is a grave social, economic and psychiatric problem which has attracted the attention of countless research workers and theorists. From a survey of the recent literature two conclusions emerge. Firstly, that there is at present no general agreement as to the aetiology, dynamics and treatment of alcoholism (1). Secondly, that the inadequacies of the majority of the experiments reported are such that the findings are often difficult to interpret and highly limited in their value (2, 3). In many cases the conclusions do not follow from the data; in others they are impossible to evaluate because insufficient procedural details are given; other studies attempt to answer a large number of questions and answer none adequately; some findings are based upon extremely small or atypical samples while others are based upon experiments open to such obvious criticisms that serious consideration is unwarranted. Many of these studies are apparently the by-product of the busy clinician's experiences and consequently lacking in rigour of any description. Remarkably few are predictive in their techniques or based upon any clearly formulated and testable theory. It is hardly surprising that so many fail to satisfy the usual criteria of acceptable scientific research (4).

Information

Type
Original Articles
Information
Journal of Mental Science , Volume 104 , Issue 434 , January 1958 , pp. 14 - 33
Copyright
Copyright © Royal College of Psychiatrists, 1958 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

1. Vogel, S., “An interpretation of medical and psychiatric approaches in the treatment of alcoholism”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1953, 14, 620–631.Google Scholar
2. Jellinek, E. M., and McFarland, R. A., “Analysis of psychological experiments on the effect of alcohol”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1940, 1, 272–371.Google Scholar
3. Takala, M., Pihkanen, T. A., and Markkanen, T., The effects of distilled and brewed beverages, 1957, 4. Helsinki: The Finnish Foundation for Alcoholic Studies.Google Scholar
4. Franks, C. M., “Personality Theory in Britain”, in Perspectives in Personality Theory (eds. David, H. P. and von Bracken, H.), 1957. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
5. Kanorski, J., Conditioned Reflexes and Neuron Organization, 1948. Cambridge: Camb. Univ. Press.Google Scholar
6. Thorpe, W. H., Learning and Instinct in Animals, 1956. London: Methuen.Google Scholar
7. Guthrie, E. R., The Psychology of Learning, 1952. 2nd edition. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
8. Hilgard, E. R., and Marquis, D. G., Conditioning and Learning, 1940. New York. Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
9. Pavlov, I. P., Conditioned Reflexes, 1927. London: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
10. Idem, Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes, 1928. 1. London: Lawrence & Wishart.Google Scholar
11. Idem , “Conditioned Reflexes and Psychiatry”, in Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes, 1941, 2. New York: International Publications.Google Scholar
12. Franks, C. M., “An experimental study of conditioning as related to mental abnormality”, 1954. London: Ph.D. Dissertation.Google Scholar
13. Razran, G. H. S., “Conditioned responses in children”, Arch. Psychol., N.Y., 1933, 23, No. 148.Google Scholar
14. Franks, C. M., “The establishment of a conditioning laboratory for the investigation of personality and cortical functioning”, Nature, 1955, 175, 984–985.Google Scholar
15. Idem , “Personality factors and the rate of conditioning”, Brit. J. Psychol., 1957, 48, 119–126.Google Scholar
16. Idem , “Conditioning and personality; a study of normal and neurotic subjects”, J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1956, 52, 143–150.Google Scholar
17. Idem , “Effect of food, drink and tobacco deprivation on the conditioning of the eyeblink response”, J. exp. Psychol., 1957, 53, 117–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18. Idem and Laverty, S. G., “Sodium amytal and eyelid conditioning”, J. Ment. Sci., 1955, 101, 654–663.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19. Idem and Trouton, D. S., “Effects of amobarbital sodium and dexamphetamine sulfate on the conditioning of the eyeblink response,” J. comp. physiol. Psychol. (to appear).Google Scholar
20. Bartholomew, A. A., Franks, C. M., and Marley, E., “Susceptibility to methylpentynol. 3. Eyelid conditioning and PGR response.” (In press, 1958.)Google Scholar
21. Eysenck, H. J., The Structure of Human Personality, 1953. London: Methuen.Google Scholar
22. Franks, C. M., “Recidivism, Psychopathy and Delinquency”, Brit. J. Delinq., 1956, 6, 192–201.Google Scholar
23. Gantt, W. H., “The Conditioned Reflex Function as an Aid in the Study of the Psychiatric Patient”, in Hoch, P. H., and Zubin, J. (Eds.), Relation of Psychological Tests to Psychiatry, 1950. New York: Grune and Stratton.Google Scholar
24. Reese, W. G., Doss, R., and Gantt, W. H., “Autonomic responses in differential diagnoses of organic and psychogenic psychoses”, A.M.A. Arch. Neurol. Psychiat., 1953, 70, 778–793.Google Scholar
25. Mayer Gross, W., Slater, E., and Roth, M., Clinical Psychiatry, 1954. London: Cassell.Google Scholar
26. Kennedy, A., “Psychopathic personality and social responsibility”, J. Ment. Sci., 1954, 100, 873–881.Google Scholar
27. Gantt, W. H., “Effect of alcohol on cortical and subcortical activity measured by the conditioned reflex method”, Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp., 1935, 56, 61–83.Google Scholar
28. Mead, L. C., “The effects of alcohol on two performances of different intellectual capacity”, J. gen. Psychol., 1939, 21, 3–23.Google Scholar
29. Rivers, W. H. R., and Webber, H. N., “The influence of small doses of alcohol on the capacity for muscular work”, Brit. J. Psychol., 1908, 2, 261–280.Google Scholar
30. Newman, H. W., and Newman, E. J., “Failure of dexedrine and caffeine as practical antagonists of the depressant effect of ethyl alcohol in man”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1956, 17, 406–410.Google Scholar
31. Settlage, P. H., “The effect of sodium amytal on the formation and elicitation of conditioned reflexes”, J. comp. Psychol., 1936, 22, 339–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
32. Popov, N. A., and Popov, C., “Contribution à l'étude des functions corticales chez l'homme, par la méthode des réflexes conditionnés électrocorticaux. 1. Action de l'alcool sur les images consécutives et leur conditionnement”, 1° note, C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris, 1953, 237, 930–932.Google Scholar
33. Iidem , “Contribution a l'étude des fonctions corticales chez l'homme, par la méthode des réflexes conditionnés électrocorticaux. II. De la modification par l'alcool des couleurs des images consécutives et des images consécutives conditionées”, C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris, 1953, 237, 1439–1441.Google Scholar
34. Fromherg, K., “Sedative Wirkungen im Tierversuch”, Arch. exp. Path. Pharmak., 1927, 121, 273–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35. Varé, P., “Influence de l'alcool sur les réactions psychomotrices”, C. R. Soc. biol., 1932, 3, 70–72.Google Scholar
36. Erlacher, C., “Vergleichende Untersuchungen über die Alkoholwirkung bei Schulkindern”, Z. pädag. Psychol., 1931, 32, 185–196.Google Scholar
37. Goodman, L., and Gilman, A., The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 1941. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
38. Horsey, W. J., “The influence of ethyl alcohol on the spontaneous electrical activity of the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures of the cat”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1953, 14, 363–377.Google Scholar
39. Arlitt, A. H., “Effect of alcohol on intelligent behaviour of the white rat and its progeny”, Psychol. Rev. Monogr., 1919, 26, 1–50.Google Scholar
40. McDowell, E. C., and Vicari, E. M., “Alcoholism and white rats. Influence on maze behavior”, J. exp. Zoo., 1921, 33, 209–291.Google Scholar
41. Idem , “Alcoholism and behavior of white rats. II. Maze behavior of treated rats and their offspring”, J. exp. Zoo., 1923, 37, 417–456.Google Scholar
42. Macht, D. I., and Leach, H., “Effect of methyl and alcohol mixtures on behavior of rats in a maze”, Proc. Soc. exp. Biol. Med., N. Y., 1929, 26, No. 4.Google Scholar
43. Varner, W. B., “The effects of alcohol on two maze habits of albino rats”, Psychol. Bull., 1933, 30, 616.Google Scholar
44. Miller, N. E., and Miles, W. R., “Alcohol and removal of reward: an analytical study of rodent maze behavior”, J. comp. Psychol., 1936, 21, 179–204.Google Scholar
45. Seliger, R. V., “Alcohol and crime”, J. crim. Law Criminal., 1953, 44, 438–441.Google Scholar
46. Winkler, E. G., Weissman, M., and McDermaid, G., “Alcoholism and anti-social behaviour”, Psychiat. Quart. Suppl., 1954, 28, 242–254.Google Scholar
47. Mayerhoffer, G., “Recherches psychotechniques concernant l'effet de l'alcool sur le comportment des conducteurs d'automobiles”, Travail hum., 1933, 1, 257–277.Google Scholar
48. Vernon, H. M., “The relation of alcohol to road accidents: a preliminary study”, Hum. Factor, Lond., 1936, 10, 255–266.Google Scholar
49. De Silva, H. R., Bibliography on driving safety, 1937. Cambridge (Mass.) Health Bureau for Street Traffic Research.Google Scholar
50. Newman, H. W., “Research on alcohol”, Stanf. med. Bull., 1955, 13, 98–105.Google Scholar
51. Aksnes, E. G., “Effect of small dosages of alcohol upon performance in a Link Trainer”, J. aviat. Med., 1954, 25, 680–688.Google Scholar
52. Gantt, W. H., “Effect of alcohol on sexual reflexes in dogs”, Am. J. Physiol., 1940, 129, 360.Google Scholar
53. Idem, Experimental Basis for Neurotic Behavior, 1944. New York: Hoeber.Google Scholar
54. Idem , “Effect of alcohol on the sexual reflexes of normal and neurotic male dogs”, Psychosomat. Med., 1952, 14, 174–182.Google Scholar
55. Kraepelin, E., “Über die Beeinflussung einfacher psychischer Vorgänge durch einige Arzneimittel”, 1892. Jena: Fischer.Google Scholar
56. Masserman, J. H., “Effects of analeptic drugs on the hypothalamus of the cat”, Res. Publ. Ass. nerv. ment. Dis., 1940, 20, 624–631.Google Scholar
57. Idem and Yum, K. S., “An analysis of the influence of alcohol on experimental neuroses in cats”, Psychosom. Med., 1946, 8, 36–52.Google Scholar
58. Santessen, C. G., “Ueber die Wirkung von Alkohol und einigen anderen giften auf die Herzhemmung beim Frosch”, Skand. Arch. Physiol., 1934, 69, 255–292.Google Scholar
59. Ischlondsky, N. E., Brain and Behaviour: Induction as a Fundamental Mechanism of Neuro-Psychic Activity, 1949. London: Kimpton.Google Scholar
60. Shagass, C., and Naiman, J., “An objective test which differentiates between neurotic and psychotic depression”, A.M.A. Arch. Neurol. Psychiat., 1956, 75, 461–471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
61. Iidem, “Clinical psychiatric studies using the sedation threshold”, J. Psychosom. Res., 1957, 2, 45–55.Google Scholar
62. Victor, M., and Adams, R. D., “The effects of alcohol on the nervous system”, Res. Publ. Ass. nerv. ment. Dis., 1953, 32, 526–573.Google Scholar
63. Wexberg, L. E., “Psychodynamics of patients with chronic alcoholism”, J. clin. Psychopath., 1949, 10, 147–157.Google Scholar
64. Sutherland, E. H., Schroeder, H. G., and Todella, C. L., “Personality traits and the alcoholic: a critique of existing studies”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1950, 11, 547–561.Google Scholar
65. McDowell, E. C., “The influence of parental alcoholism upon habit formation in albino rats”, Proc. Soc. exp. Biol. Med., 1919, 16, 125–126.Google Scholar
66. Idem , “Experiments with albino and white rats”, Am. Nat., 1922, 56, 289–311.Google Scholar
67. Hanson, F. B., and Cooper, L., “The effects of ten generations of alcoholic ancestry upon learning ability in the albino rat”, J. exp. Zoo., 1930, 56, 369–392.Google Scholar
68. Marshall, J., “Alcohol—a critical review of the literature 1929–1940”, Psychol. Bull., 1941, 38, 193–217.Google Scholar
69. Munn, N. L., Handbook of Psychological Research on the Rat, 1950. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
70. Moore, M., “Alcoholism: some contemporary opinions”, New Engl. J. Med., 1941, 224, 848–857.Google Scholar
71. Voegtlin, W. L., and Lemere, F., “The treatment of alcohol addiction: A review of the literature”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1942, 2, 717–803.Google Scholar
72. Idem , “The treatment of alcoholism by establishing a conditioned reflex”, Amer. J. ment. Sci., 1940, 199, 802–809.Google Scholar
73. Lemere, F., and Voegtlin, W. L., “Conditioned reflex therapy of alcoholic addiction; specificity of conditioning against chronic alcoholism”, Calif West. Med., 1940, 53, 269–279.Google Scholar
74. Voegtlin, W. L., Lemere, F., and Broz, W. R., “Conditioned reflex therapy of alcoholic addiction. III. An evaluation of present results in the light of previous experiences with this method”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1940, 1, 501–506.Google Scholar
75. Idem , Broz, W. R., and O'Hallaren, P., “Conditioned reflex therapy of chronic alcoholism. IV. A preliminary report on the value of reinforcement”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1941, 2, 505–511.Google Scholar
76. Lemere, F., Voegtlin, W. L., Broz, W. R., and O'Hallaren, P. “Conditioned reflex treatment of chronic alcoholism. V. Type of patient suitable for this treatment”, Northw. Med., Seattle, 1942, 4, 88–89.Google Scholar
77. Voegtlin, W. L., Lemere, F., Broz, W. R., and O'Hallaren, P, “Conditioned reflex treatment of alcoholic addiction. VI. Follow-up report of 1,042 cases”, Am. J. Med. Sci., 1942, 203, 525–528.Google Scholar
78. Lemere, F., Voegtlin, W. L., Broz, W. R., O'Hallaren, P., and Tupper, W. E., “Conditioned reflex treatment of chronic alcoholism. VII”, Dis. nerv. Syst., 1942, 3, 243–247.Google Scholar
79. Iidem , “The conditioned reflex treatment of chronic alcoholism. VIII. A review of six years' experience with this treatment of 1,526 patients”, J. Amer. med. Ass., 1942, 120, 269–270.Google Scholar
80. Iidem , “Heredity as an etiologic factor in chronic alcoholism”, Northw. Med., Seattle, 1943, 42, 110–111.Google Scholar
81. Markovikov, A., “Therapy by combination of persuasion with development of conditioned reflex of vomiting after swallowing alcoholic drink”, Sovetsk. vrach. gaz., 1934, 807–811.Google Scholar
82. Ichok, G., “Les réflexes conditionnels et le traitment de l'alcoolique”, Prog. méd., Paris, 1934, 45, 1742–1745.Google Scholar
83. Galant, J. S., “Über die Apomorphinbehandlung der Alkoholiker”, Psychiat.-neurol., Wschr., 1936, 38, 85–89.Google Scholar
84. Diethelm, O., ed., Etiology of Chronic Alcoholism, 1955. Springfield, Ill.: Thomas.Google Scholar
85. Voegtlin, W. L., “The conditioned reflex therapy of chronic alcoholism; ten years' experience with the method”, Rocky Mtn. med. J., 1947, 44, 807–812.Google Scholar
86. Spencer Patterson, A., “Modern techniques for the treatment of acute and prolonged alcoholism”, Brit. J. Addict., 1950, 47, 3–15.Google Scholar
87. Lévy-Valensi, , “Le traitement de l'alcoolisme”, Paris méd., 1939, 29, 401–409.Google Scholar
88. Fellion, G., “Traitement de l'alcoolisme”, Concourse méd., 1952, 74, 1877–1878.Google Scholar
89. VOEGTLIN, W. L., and Broz, W. R., “The conditioned reflex treatment of chronic alcoholism. X. An analysis of 3,125 admissions over a period of ten and a half years”, Ann. intern. med., 1949, 30, 580–597.Google Scholar
90. Ash, W. E., and Mahoney, J. D., “The use of conditioned reflex and Antabuse in the therapy of alcoholism”, J. Iowa St. med. Soc., 1951, 41, 456–458.Google Scholar
91. Boitelle, G., Boitelle-Lentalo, C., Singer, L., and Davy, G., “Résultats de deux ans de traitment anti-alcoolique au service libre de l'hòpital psychiatrique de Lorquin”, Ann. méd-psychol., 1952, 110, 348–352.Google Scholar
92. Wyss, R., “Nouvelles méthodes de traitement médical de l'alcoolisme”, Gaz. med. France, 1949, 56, 583–592.Google Scholar
93. Feldman, D. J., “The treatment of chronic alcoholism: a survey of current methods”, Ann. intern. Med., 1956, 44, 78–87.Google Scholar
94. Wallace, J. A., “The treatment of alcoholism by the conditioned reflex method”, J. Tenn. St. med. Ass., 1949, 42, 125–128.Google Scholar
95. Thimann, J., “Conditioned reflex treatment of alcoholism. 1. Its rationale and technique”, New Engl. J. Med., 1949, 241, 368–370.Google Scholar
96. Idem , “Conditioned reflex treatment of alcoholism. 2. The risks of its application, its indications, contraindications and therapeutic aspects”, New Engl. J. Med., 1949, 241, 406–410.Google Scholar
97. Sherfey, M. J., and Diethelm, O., “Evaluation of drugs in the treatment of alcoholism”, Res. Publ. Ass. nerv. ment. Dis., 1951, 31, 287–294.Google Scholar
98. Linn, L., A Handbook of Hospital Psychiatry: a Practical Guide to Therapy, 1955. New York: International University Press.Google Scholar
99. Bowman, K. M., “Alcoholism: theory, problem and challenge. IV. The treatment of alcoholism”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1956, 17, 318–324.Google Scholar
100. Tabori, J., “Zur Kasuistik des induzierten Morphinismus”, Zentbl. f. Psychotherap., 1933, 6, 88–96.Google Scholar
101. Knight, R. P., “The psychiatric treatment in a sanatorium of chronic addiction to alcohol”, J. Amer. med. Ass., 1938, 111, 1143–1446.Google Scholar
102. Fleming, R., and Tillotson, K. J., “Further studies on personality and sociological factors in prognosis and treatment of chronic alcoholism”, New Engl. J. Med., 1939, 221, 741–746.Google Scholar
103. Henderson, D. K., and Gillespie, R. D., A Text Book of Psychiatry, 1950. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
104. Carver, A. E., Brit. med. J., 1949, ii, 707–708 (correspondence).Google Scholar
105. Edlin, J. V., Johnson, R. H., Hletko, P., and Heilbrunn, G., “Conditioned aversion treatment in chronic alcoholism”, Amer. J. Psychiat., 1945, 101, 801–809.Google Scholar
106. Kant, F., “The conditioned reflex treatment in the light of our knowledge of alcohol addiction”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1944, 5, 371–377.Google Scholar
107. Carlson, A. J., “The conditioned reflex of alcohol addiction”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1944, 5, 212–215.Google Scholar
108. Tiebout, H. M., “The role of psychiatry in the field of alcoholism. With comment on the concept of alcoholism as symptom and as disease”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1951. 12, 52–57.Google Scholar
109. Koller, A., “Die Behandlung des chronischen Alkoholismus”, Gesundh. u. Wohlf., 1946, 26, 611–619.Google Scholar
110. Rusterhols, , “Alcoholics Anonymous”, Gesundh. u. Wohlf., 1946, 26, 626–630.Google Scholar
111. Ollivier, H., and Klotz, B., “ ‘Aversion-to-alcoholic-drinks’ treatment in the fight against alcoholism”, Ann. Méd. lég., 1949, 29, 53–57.Google Scholar
112. Delay, J., Pichot, P., and Thuillier, J., “Les nouvelles chimiothérapies de l'alcoolisme”, Ann. méd. psychol., 1949, 107, 427–429.Google Scholar
113. Jones, R. O., “Death following ingestion of alcohol in Antabuse treated patients”, Canad. med. Ass. J., 1949, 60, 609–612.Google Scholar
114. Martensen-Larsen, O., “Psychotic phenomena provoked by tetraethylthiuram disulfide”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1951, 12, 207–216.Google Scholar
115. Mann, N. M., Conway, E. J., Gottesfield, B. H., and Lasser, L. N., “Coordinated approach to Antabuse therapy”, J. Amer. med. Ass., 1952, 149, 40–46.Google Scholar
116. Strecker, E. A., and Lathbury, V. T., “Tetraethylthiuram disulfide (Antabuse) therapy; report of two cases”, J. Amer. med. Ass., 1952, 149, 40–46.Google Scholar
117. Dent, J. Y., “Apomorphine treatment of addiction, some recent developments”, Brit. J. Addict., 1949, 46, 15–28.Google Scholar
118. Idem, Anxiety and its Treatment, with Special Reference to Alcoholism, 1947. 2nd ed. Belfast Mullan.Google Scholar
119. Vencovský, V., “Treatment of alcoholism with tetraethylthiuram disulfide”, $Cnas. Lék. ces., 1950, 89, 258–262.Google Scholar
120. Bachet, M., “Problèmes soulevés par le traitement de l'alcoolisme en créant un réflexe conditionné après inhibition, sans chimiothérapie”, Ann. méd.-psychol., 1952, 110, 223–227.Google Scholar
121. Rush, B., An Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits upon the Body and Mind, with an Account of the Means of Preventing and of the Remedies for Curing them, 1814. 8th edition. Brookfield: Meriam.Google Scholar
122. Solomon, R. L., and Brush, E. S., “Experimentally Derived Conceptions of Anxiety and Aversion”, in Jones, M. R. (ed.) Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1956, 4. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
123. Hilgard, E. R., Theories of Learning, 1956. 2nd edition. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
124. Kantorovich, N. V., “An attempt at associative reflex therapy in alcoholism”, Nov. Refl. Fiziol. Nerv. Sist., 1929, 3, 436–447 (Psychol. Abstr. No. 4282, 1930).Google Scholar
125. Wang, S. C., and Borison, H. C., “The vomiting center: A critical experimental analysis”, Arch. Neurol. Psychiat., 1950, 63, 928–941.Google Scholar
126. Hatcher, R. A., and Weiss, S., “Studies on vomiting”, J. Pharmacol. exp. Therap., 1923. 22, 139–193.Google Scholar
127. Lemere, F., and O'Hallaren, P., “Pentothal Sodium treatment of alcoholism”, Arch. Neurol. Psychiat., 1949, 48, 482–484.Google Scholar
128. Raymond, M. J., “Case of fetishism treated by aversion therapy”, Brit. med. J., 13 October, 1956, 854–857, No. 4997.Google Scholar
129. French, T. M., “Interrelations between psychoanalysis and the experimental work of Pavlov”, Amer. J. Psychiat., 1933, 12, 1165–1203.Google Scholar
130. Kubie, L. S., “Relation of the conditioned reflex to psychoanalytic technique”, A.M.A. Arch. Neurol. Psychiat., 1934, 32, 1137–1142.Google Scholar
131. Darley, J., “Review of counselling and psychotherapy”, J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1943, 38, 199–201.Google Scholar
132. Shaw, F. J., “A stimulus-response analysis of repression and insight in psychotherapy”, Psychol. Rev., 1946, 53, 36–42.Google Scholar
133. Shaffer, L. F., “The problem of psychotherapy”, Amer. Psychol., 1947, 2, 459–467.Google Scholar
134. Shoben, E. J., “A learning theory interpretation of psychotherapy”, Harv. Educ. Rev., 1948, 18, 129–145.Google Scholar
135. Freedman, B., “Conditioned reflex and psychodynamic equivalents in alcohol addiction”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1948, 9, 53–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
136. Shoben, E. J., “Psychotherapy as a problem in learning theory”, Psychol. Bull., 1949, 46, 366–392.Google Scholar
137. Magaret, A., “Generalization in successful psychotherapy”, J. consult. Psychol., 1950, 14, 64–70.Google Scholar
138. Dollard, J., and Miller, N. E., Personality and Psychotherapy, 1950. New York: McGraw Hill.Google Scholar
139. Shoben, E. J., “Some observations on psychotherapy and the learning process”, Ch. 5, p. 120–140, in Psychotherapy, Theory and Research (ed. Mowrer, O. H.), 1953. New York: Ronald.Google Scholar
140. Mowrer, O. H., Psychotherapy: Theory and Research, 1953. New York: Ronald.Google Scholar
141. Agoston, T., “Experimental administration of benzedrine sulfate and other central stimulants in psychoanalysis and psychotherapies”, Psychoanal. Rev., 1944, 31, 438–452.Google Scholar
142. Pullar-Strecker, H. A., “Review on the 1949–1950 literature of addiction”, Brit. J. Addict., 1951, 48, 3–119.Google Scholar
143. Strecker, E. A., and Chambers, F. T., Alcohol, One Man's Meat, 1939. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
144. Idem , “Chronic alcoholism, a psychologic survey”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1941, 2, 12–17.Google Scholar
145. Manson, M. P., “A psychometric differentiation of alcoholics from non-alcoholics”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1948, 9, 175–206.Google Scholar
146. Hewitt, C. C., “A personality study of alcoholic addiction”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1943, 4, 368–386.Google Scholar
147. Button, A. D., “A study of alcoholics with the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1956, 17, 263–281.Google Scholar
148. Bacon, S. D., “The administration of alcoholism rehabilitation programs”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1949, 10, 1–47.Google Scholar
149. Davidoff, E., and Whitaker, C. A., “Prepsychotic personality in alcoholic psychoses”, Psychiat. Quart., 1940, 14, 103–120.Google Scholar
150. Hoch, P. H., “Personality factors in alcoholic psychoses”, Psychiat. Quart., 1940, 14, 338–346.Google Scholar
151. Norbury, F. G., “Some mental mechanisms in alcoholism”, J. Amer. med. Ass., 1942, 118, 25–28.Google Scholar
152. Wenger, P., “History of a drinking habit in 400 inmates of a penal institution”, N. Y. St. J. Med., 1944, 44, 1898–1904.Google Scholar
153. Fleeson, W., and Gildea, E. F., “A study of the personalities of 289 abnormal drinkers”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1942, 3, 409–432.Google Scholar
154. Hampton, P. J., “Representative studies of alcoholism and personality. 1. Naturalistic studies”, J. soc. Psychol., 1951, 34, 203–210.Google Scholar
155. Idem , “Representative studies of alcoholism and personality. II. Clinical studies”, ibid., 1951, 34, 211–222.Google Scholar
156. Idem , “Representative studies of alcoholism and personality. III. Psychometric studies”, ibid, 1951, 34, 223–234.Google Scholar
157. Quaranta, J. V., “Alcoholism: a study of emotional maturity and homosexuality as related factors to compulsive drinking”, M.A. Thesis, Fordham Univ., New York, 1947.Google Scholar
158. Schaefer, E. S., “Personality structure of alcoholics in outpatient psychotherapy”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1954, 15, 304–319.Google Scholar
159. Hansen, H. A., and Teilmann, K., “A treatment of criminal alcoholics in Denmark”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1954, 15, 246–287.Google Scholar
160. Davies, D. L., Shepherd, M., and Myers, E., “The two-years' prognosis of 50 alcohol addicts after treatment in hospital”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1956, 17, 485–502.Google Scholar
161. Straus, R., and Bacon, S. D., “Alcoholism and social stability. A study of occupational integration in 2,023 male clinic patients”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1951, 12, 231–260.Google Scholar
162. Vogel, V. H., “Suggestibility in chronic alcoholics”, Suppl. 144, U.S. Publ. Hlth. Rep., Washington, D.C., 1938.Google Scholar
163. Wittman, P., “A controlled study of the development and personality characteristics of chronic alcoholics”, Elgin Papers, 1939, 3, 77–84.Google Scholar
164. Idem , “A differential analysis of ‘adjustment’ scores for chronic alcoholics and control”, ibid, 1939, 3, 85–93.Google Scholar
165. Idem , “Diagrams and analysis of temperament for groups of alcoholics compared with controls”, ibid, 1939, 3, 94–99.Google Scholar
166. Idem , “Developmental characteristics and personalities of chronic alcoholics”, J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1939, 34, 361–377.Google Scholar
167. Landis, C., “Theories of the alcoholic personality”, in Alcohol, Science and Society, New Haven: Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1945.Google Scholar
168. Jellinek, E. M. (ed.), Alcohol, Addiction and Chronic Alcoholism, 1942. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
169. Sherfey, M. J., “Psychopathology and character structure in chronic alcoholism”, in Diethelm, O. (ed.), Etiology of Chronic Alcoholism, 1955. Springfield, Ill.: Thomas.Google Scholar
170. Bleuler, M., “Familial and personal background of chronic alcoholics”, in Diethelm, O. (ed.), Etiology of Chronic Alcoholism, 1955. Springfield, Ill.: Thomas.Google Scholar
171. Payne, R. B., “The effects of drugs upon psychological efficiency”, J. Aviat. Med., 1953, 24, 523–529.Google Scholar
172. Ford, C. S., and Beach, F. A., Pattern of Sexual Behavior, 1951. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
173. Andreyev, L. A., “The effect of single and repeated doses of alcohol on conditioned reflexes in the dog”, Arch. int. Pharmacodyn., 1934, 48, 117–128.Google Scholar
174. Masserman, J. H., “Neurosis and alcohol”, Amer. J. Psychiat., 1944, 101, 389–395.Google Scholar
175. Seliger, R. V., and Cranford, V., “Alcoholic criminal”, in Branham, V. C., and Kutash, S. B. (eds.), Encyclopedia of criminology, 1949. New York: Philosophical Library.Google Scholar
176. Meignant, P., “Réflexes conditionnels et psycho-pathologie: quelque remarques concernant les perversions et les anomalies sexuelles”, Gaz. Méd. Fr., 1935, 28, 327–332.Google Scholar
177. Max, L. W., “Breaking up a homosexual fixation by the conditioned reaction technique: a case study”, Psych. Bull., 1935, 32, 734.Google Scholar
178. Salter, A., Conditioned Reflex Therapy, 1949. New York: Creative Age Press.Google Scholar
179. Levine, J., “The sexual adjustment of alcoholics. A clinical study of a selected sample”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1955, 16, 675–680.Google Scholar
180. Bitterman, M. E., Reed, P., and Krauskopf, J., “The effect of the duration of the unconditioned stimulus upon conditioning and extinction”, Amer. J. Psychol., 1952, 65, 256–262.Google Scholar
181. Butler, R. A., “Discrimination learning by rhesus monkeys to visual exploration motivation”, J. comp. physiol. Psychol., 1953, 46, 95–98.Google Scholar
182. Carper, J. W., “A comparison of the reinforcing value of a nutritive and a non-nutritive substance under conditions of specific and general hunger”, Amer. J. Psychol., 1953, 66, 270–277.Google Scholar
183. Welch, L., “What is need reduction?”, J. Psychol., 1952, 33, 153–157.Google Scholar
184. Wilkins, W. L., “Alcoholism: theory, problem and challenge. I. The idea of proneness in relation to alcoholism”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1956, 17, 291–295.Google Scholar
185. Royer, P. H., “Psycho-physiologie de la soif”, Encéphale, 1953, 42, (Suppl. 1), 1–4.Google Scholar
186. Peabody, R. A., “Psychotherapeutic procedure in treatment of chronic alcoholism”, Ment. Hyg., N. Y., 1930, 14, 109–128.Google Scholar
187. McFarland, R. A., and Borach, A. L., “The relationship between alcoholic intoxication and oxygen want”, Amer. J. med. Sci., 1936, 192, 186–198.Google Scholar
188. Westerfield, W. W., and Lawrow, J., “The effect of calorie restriction and thiamin deficiency on the voluntary consumption of alcohol in rats”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1953, 14, 378–384.Google Scholar
189. Conger, J. J., “The effects of alcohol in conflict behavior in the albino rat”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1951, 12, 1–29.Google Scholar
190. Lolli, G., “Alcoholism as a disorder of the love disposition”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1956, 17, 96–107.Google Scholar
191. Fenichel, O., The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis, 1945. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
192. Williams, E. Y., “The anxiety-syndrome in alcoholism”, Psychiat. Quart., 1950, 24, 782–787.Google Scholar
193. Bacon, S. D., “Alcohol and Complex Society”, in Alcohol, Science and Society (Ch. 14), New Haven: Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1945.Google Scholar
194. Ullman, A. D., “The psychological mechanism of alcohol addiction”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1952, 13, 602–608.Google Scholar
195. Horton, D., “The functions of alcohol in primitive societies: A cross-cultural study”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1943, 4, 199–220.Google Scholar
196. Freud, S., The Problem of Anxiety, 1936. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
197. Horney, K., The Neurotic Personality of our Time, 1937. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
198. Sullivan, H. S., Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry, 1947. Washington, D.C.: William Alanson White Psychiatric Foundation.Google Scholar
199. Randolph, T. G., “The descriptive features of food addiction. Addictive eating and drinking”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1956, 17, 198–224.Google Scholar
200. Ullman, A. D., “The experimental production and analysis of a ‘compulsive eating syndrome’ in rats”, J. comp. physiol. Psychol., 1951, 44, 575–581.Google Scholar
201. Idem , “Three factors involved in producing ‘compulsive eating’ in rats”, ibid, 1952, 45, 490–496.Google Scholar
202. Snyder, C. R., and Landman, R. H., “Studies of drinking in Jewish culture. II. Prospectives for sociological research in Jewish drinking patterns”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1951, 12, 451–474.Google Scholar
203. Ferenczi, S., Further Contributions to the Theory and Technique of Psychoanalysis (Trans. by Suttie, J.), 1927. New York: Boni and Liverisht.Google Scholar
204. Bird, B., “One aspect of causation in alcoholism”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1949, 9, 533–545.Google Scholar
205. Miller, N. E., “Studies of fear as an acquired drive. I. Fear as motivation and fear-reduction as reinforcement in the learning of new responses”, J. exp. Psychol., 1948, 38, 89–101.Google Scholar
206. Conger, J. J., “An analysis of the effect of alcohol on conflict behavior in the albino rat”, 1949. Ph.D. Dissertation, Yale.Google Scholar
207. Masserman, J. H., Behavior and Neurosis, 1943. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
208. Idem, Principles of Dynamic Psychiatry, 1946. Philadelphia: Saunders.Google Scholar
209. Stewart, C. C., “Variations in daily activity produced by alcohol and by changes in barometric pressure and diet with a description of recording methods”, Amer. J. Physiol., 1898, 1, 40–56.Google Scholar
210. Richter, C. P., “A study of the effect of moderate doses of alcohol on the growth and behavior of the rat”, J. exp. Zoo., 1926, 44, 397–418.Google Scholar
211. Bailey, C., and Miller, N. E., “Effect of sodium amytal on behavior of cats in an approach-avoidance conflict”, J. comp. physiol. Psychol., 1952, 45, 205–208.Google Scholar
212. Conger, J. J., “Reinforcement theory and the dynamics of alcoholism”, Quart. J. Stud. Alc., 1956, 17, 296–305.Google Scholar
213. Liddell, H. S., Emotional Hazards in Animals and Man, 1956. Springfield, Ill. : C. C. Thomas.Google Scholar
214. Dworkin, S., Bourne, W., and Raginsky, B. B., “Changes in conditioned responses brought about by anaesthetics and sedatives”, Can. Med. Assoc. J., 1937, 37, 136–139.Google Scholar
215. Gantt, W. G., and Muncie, W., “Analysis of the mental defect in chronic Korsakov's psychosis by means of the conditioned reflex”, Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp., 1942, 20, 467–487.Google Scholar
216. Lamere, F., “The nature and significance of brain damage from alcoholism”, Amer. J. Psychiat., 1956, 113, 361–362.Google Scholar
217. Courville, C. B., Effects of Alcohol on the Nervous System of Man, 1955. Los Angeles: San Lucas Press.Google Scholar
218. Rubenstein, C., “The treatment of morphine addiction in tuberculosis by Pavlov's conditioning method”, Amer. Rev. Tuberc., 1931, 24, 682–685.Google Scholar
219. Wilczkowski, E., “Stwierdzenie istnienia naturalnego odrucha warunkowego alkoholowego we krwi u alkoholikow” (The presence of a natural conditioned response in the blood of alcoholics)”, Neurol. Neuroch. Psychiat. polska., 1954, 4, 321–324.Google Scholar
220. London, I. D., “Therapy in Soviet psychiatric hospitals”, Amer. Psychologist, 1953, 8, 79–82.Google Scholar
221. Metalnikov, S., and Chorine, V., “Roles des réflexes conditionnels dans la formation des anticorps”, C. R. Soc. biol., 1928, 99, 142–145.Google Scholar
222. Razran, G. H. S., “Conditioned responses in animals other than dogs”, Psychol. Bull., 1933, 30, 261–324.Google Scholar
223. Smith, S. H., and Dalinger, R., “Hypersensitiveness and the conditioned reflex”, Yale J. Biol. and Med., 1933, 5, 387–391.Google Scholar
224. Kleitman, N., and Crisler, G., “A quantitative study of a salivary conditioned reflex”, Amer. J. Physiol., 1927, 79, 571–614.Google Scholar
225. Eagle, E., “Conditioned inhibition of water diuresis”, Amer. J. Physiol., 1933, 103, 362–366.Google Scholar
226. Gantt, W. H., Katzenelbogen, S., and Loucks, R. B., “An attempt to condition adrenalin hyperglycemia”, Bull. Johns Hop. Hosp., 1937, 60, 400–411.Google Scholar
227. Loucks, R. M., “Humoral conditioning in mammals”, J. Psychol., 1937, 4, 295–307.Google Scholar
228. Finch, G., “Pilocarpine conditioning”, Amer. J. Physiol., 1938, 124, 679–682.Google Scholar
229. Katzenelbogen, S., Loucks, R. B., and Gannt, W. H., “An attempt to condition gastric secretion to histamine”, Amer. J. Physiol., 1939, 128, 10–12.Google Scholar
230. Richter, C. P., Science Newsletter, 1956, 6, 69–70.Google Scholar
Submit a response

eLetters

No eLetters have been published for this article.