Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-b6zl4 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-10T22:00:11.699Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Women Robed in Independence: How Women Judges Influence Perceptions of Judicial Independence in Europe

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 January 2025

EmiLee Smart Open the ORCID record for EmiLee Smart [Opens in a new window]  and
Abbie Wood Open the ORCID record for Abbie Wood [Opens in a new window]
EmiLee Smart*
Affiliation:
Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA
Abbie Wood
Affiliation:
University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
*
Corresponding author: EmiLee Smart; Email: emilee.smart@nau.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The number of women on high courts across the globe has been steadily increasing. Recent estimates found that women now make up 61% of the judiciary in European countries (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2019). The large number of women now serving in judicial positions has resulted in a changing demographic makeup of courts. While the majority might think this is a step forward for diverse representation, there is ultimately a dichotomy between judicial accountability that comes as a result of increased diversity in descriptive representation and judicial independence. Given this dichotomy, along with the increase in women on courts, it follows that the public’s perceptions of courts’ independence has the potential to change. We explore this phenomenon by asking the following question: How does the presence of women on high courts impact perceptions of judicial independence among the public? Using survey data gathered from respondents in twenty-seven European countries from 2016 to 2022, we examine how the dynamics of an increasing number of women on high courts alters the public’s perceptions on the level of independence of the court in their country. We draw from literature on judicial independence as well as women political elites and corruption. Importantly, we document that increasing the percentage of women on courts results in higher perceptions of judicial independence for women. Overall, our findings highlight important trends regarding gender diversity in political institutions and how changes in descriptive characteristics shape perceptions of judicial independence.

Keywords

womenjudgescomparative courtsEurope
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Law and Courts , First View , pp. 1 - 18
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Law and Courts Organized Section of the American Political Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Arana Araya, Ignacio, Hughes, Melanie M., and Pérez-Liñán, Aníbal. 2021. “Judicial Reshuffles and Women Justices in Latin America.” American Journal of Political Science 65(2): 373–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnesen, Sveinung, and Peters, Yvette. 2018. “The Legitimacy of Representation: How Descriptive, Formal, and Responsiveness Representation Affect the Acceptability of Political Decisions.” Comparative Political Studies 51(7): 868–899.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ash, Elliott, Chen, Daniel L., and Ornaghi, Arianna. 2021. “Gender Attitudes in the Judiciary: Evidence from US Circuit Courts.” Center for Law & Economics Working Paper Series 2019(02).Google Scholar
Atkeson, Lonna Rae, and Carrillo, Nancy. 2007. “More Is Better: The Influence of Collective Female Descriptive Representation on External Efficacy.” Politics & Gender 3(1): 79–101.Google Scholar
Badas, Alex, and Stauffer, Katelyn E.. 2018. “Someone Like Me: Descriptive Representation and Support for Supreme Court Nominees.” Political Research Quarterly 71(1): 127–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Badas, Alex, and Stauffer, Katelyn E.. 2023. “Descriptive Representation, Judicial Nominations, and Perceptions of Presidential Accomplishment.” Representation 59(2): 249–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, Tiffany D., and Beaulieu, Emily. 2019. “Women Politicians, Institutions, and Perceptions of Corruption.” Comparative Political Studies 52(1): 134–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, Tiffany D., Beaulieu, Emily, and Saxton, Gregory W.. 2018. “Restoring Trust in the Police: Why Female Officers Reduce Suspicions of Corruption.” Governance 31(1): 143–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, Tiffany D., and Burchard, Stephanie M.. 2013. “‘Engendering’ Politics: The Impact of Descriptive Representation on Women’s Political Engagement in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Comparative Political Studies 46(7): 767–790.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, Tiffany D., and Holman, Mirya R.. 2020. “Gender Quotas, Women’s Representation, and Legislative Diversity.” The Journal of Politics 82(4): 1271–1286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, Nichole M., and Cargile, Ivy A. M.. 2023. “Women Get the Job Done: Differences in Constituent Communication from Female and Male Lawmakers. Politics & Gender 19(4): 1110–1133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauhr, Monika, and Charron, Nicholas. 2021. “Will Women Executives Reduce Corruption? Marginalization and Network Inclusion.” Comparative Political Studies 54(7): 1292–1322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benstead, Lindsay J., and Lust, Ellen. 2018. “Why do Some Voters Prefer Female Candidates? The Role of Perceived Incorruptibility in Arab Elections.” In Gender and Corruption: Historical Roots and New Avenues for Research, edited by Stensöta, Helena and Wängnerud, Lena, 83–104. Palgrave Macmillan Press. London, UK.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berkman, Michael B., and O’Connor, Robert E.. 1993. “Do women Legislators Matter? Female Legislators and State Abortion Policy.” American Politics Quarterly 21(1): 102–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boudreau, Cheryl, and MacKenzie, Scott A.. 2014. “Informing the Electorate? How Party Cues and Policy Information Affect Public Opinion About Initiatives.” American Journal of Political Science 58(1): 48–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, Christina L., and Nelson, Michael J.. 2017. “The Effects of Trial Judge Gender and Public Opinion on Criminal Sentencing Decisions.” Vanderbilt Law Review 70(6): 1819–1843.Google Scholar
Brader, Ted, Tucker, Joshua A., and Duell, Dominik. 2013. “Which Parties Can Lead Opinion? Experimental Evidence on Partisan Cue Taking in Multiparty Democracies.” Comparative Political Studies 46(11): 1485–1517.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braman, Eileen, and Easter, Beth. 2014. “Normative Legitimacy: Rules of Appropriateness in Citizens’ Assessments of Individual Judicial Decisions.” Justice System Journal 35(3): 239–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choi, Stephen J., Gulati, Mitu, Holman, Mirya, and Posner, Eric A.. 2011. “Judging Women.” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 8(3): 504–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Tom S. 2010. The Limits of Judicial Independence. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Tom S., and Kastellec, Jonathan P.. 2015. “Source Cues and Public Support for the Supreme Court.” American Politics Research 43(3): 504–535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clayton, Amanda, O’Brien, Diana Z., and Piscopo, Jennifer M.. 2019. “All Male Panels? Representation and Democratic Legitimacy.” American Journal of Political Science 63(1): 113–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coppedge, Michael, Gerring, John, Knutsen, Carl Henrik, Lindberg, Staffan I., Teorell, Jan, Altman, David, Bernhard, Michael, et al. 2023. V-Dem [Country-Year/Country-Date] Dataset v13. Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project. https://doi.org/10.23696/vdemds23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Courtemanche, Marie, and Green, Joanne Connor. 2017. “The Influence of Women Legislators on State Health Care Spending for the Poor.” Social Sciences 6(2): 40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Della Porta, Donatella. 2001. “A Judges’ Revolution? Political Corruption and the Judiciary in Italy.” European Journal of Political Research 39(1): 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dilli, Selin, Carmichael, Sarah G., and Rijpma, Auke. 2019. “Introducing the Historical Gender Equality Index.” Feminist Economics 25(1): 31–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Endo, Yuya, and Ono, Yoshikuni. 2023. “Opposition to Women Political Leaders: Gender Bias and Stereotypes of Politicians Among Japanese Voters.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 44(3): 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ennser-Jedenastik, Laurenz. 2017. “Campaigning on the Welfare State: The Impact of Gender and Gender Diversity.” Journal of European Social Policy 27(3): 215–228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Escobar-Lemmon, Maria C., Hoekstra, Valerie J., Kang, Alice J., and Kittilson, Miki Caul. 2021. “Breaking the Judicial Glass Ceiling: The Appointment of Women to High Courts Worldwide.” The Journal of Politics 83(2): 662–674.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Escobar-Lemmon, Maria C., and Taylor-Robinson, Michelle M.. 2014. Representation: The Case of Women. Oxford University Press. Oxford, UK.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
European Commission, Brussels (2020):Eurobarometer 92.4 (2019). Kantar Public [producer]. GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. ZA7602 Data file Version 1.0.0.https://doi.org/10.4232/1.13652CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fix, Michael P., and Johnson, Gbemende E.. 2017. “Public Perceptions of Gender Bias in the Decisions of Female State Court Judges. Vanderbilt Law Review 70(6): 1845–1886.Google Scholar
Gibbons, Jonathan. 2021. Gender and Corruption in Nigeria. United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime. December 2020. Vienna.Google Scholar
Goetz, Anne Marie. 2007. “Political Cleaners: Women as the New Anti-Corruption Force?” Development and Change 38(1): 87–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gong, Ting. 2004. “Dependent Judiciary and Unaccountable Judges: Judicial Corruption in Contemporary China.” China Review 4(2): 33–54.Google Scholar
Grossman, Nienke. 2011. “Sex on the Bench: Do Women Judges Matter to the Legitimacy of International Courts?” Chicago Journal of International Law 12(2): 647.Google Scholar
Guerra, Alice, and Zhuravleva, Tatyana. 2022. “Do Women Always Behave as Corruption Cleaners? Public Choice 191(1-2): 173–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayes, Matthew, and Hibbing, Matthew V.. 2017. “The Symbolic Benefits of Descriptive and Substantive Representation. Political Behavior 39:31–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houqe, Muhammad Nurul, Zahir-ul-Hassan, Muhammad Kaleem, Idrus, Mohammad Arif, and van Zijl, Tony. 2020. “Bribery and Corruption: Assessing the Fairness of the Malaysian Judicial System. Crime, Law and Social Change 74(2): 135–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huddy, Leonie, and Terkildsen, Nayda. 1993. “Gender Stereotypes and the Perception of Male and Female Candidates.” American Journal of Political Science 37(1): 119–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurwitz, Mark S., and Lanier, Drew Noble. 2003. “Explaining Judicial Diversity: The Differential Ability of Women and Minorities to Attain Seats on State Supreme and Appellate Courts.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 3(4): 329–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joshi, Mansi P., and Diekman, Amanda B.. 2022. “My Fair Lady? Inferring Organizational Trust from the Mere Presence of Women in Leadership Roles.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 48(8): 1220–1237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kedia, Simi, and Pareek, Ankur, Women in Politics: The Effect on Board Diversity (June 9, 2023). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3744512 or http://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3744512CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lavallée, Emmanuelle, Razafindrakoto, Mireille, and Roubaud, François. 2008. “Corruption and Trust in Political Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa.” In ,CSAE Conference 2008: Economic Development in Africa 21.Google Scholar
Lawless, Jennifer L. 2004. “Women, War, and Winning Elections: Gender Stereotyping in the Post-September 11th Era.” Political Research Quarterly 57(3): 479–490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lim, Claire S. H., and Snyder, James M. Jr. 2015. “Is More Information Always Better? Party Cues and Candidate Quality in US Judicial Elections. Journal of Public Economics 128: 107–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mansbridge, Jane. 1999. “Should blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent ‘Yes’”. The Journal of Politics 61(3): 628–657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDermott, Monika L. 1997. “Voting Cues in Low-Information Elections: Candidate Gender as a Social Information Variable in Contemporary United States Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 41(1): 270–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDermott, Monika L. 1998. “Race and Gender Cues in Low-Information Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 51(4): 895–918.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minta, Michael D., and Brown, Nadia E.. 2014. “Intersecting Interests: Gender, Race, and Congressional Attention to Women’s Issues.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 11(2): 253–272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montoya, Celeste M., Bejarano, Christina, Brown, Nadia E., and Gershon, Sarah Allen. 2022. “The Intersectional Dynamics of Descriptive Representation.” Politics & Gender 18(2): 483–512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, Stephen D., and Klesner, Joseph L.. 2010. “Corruption and trust: Theoretical Considerations and Evidence from Mexico.” Comparative Political Studies 43(10): 1258–1285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicholson, Stephen P., and Hansford, Thomas G.. 2014. “Partisans in Robes: Party Cues and Public Acceptance of Supreme Court Decisions.” American Journal of Political Science 58(3): 620–636.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Brien, Diana Z. 2019. “Female Leaders and Citizens’ Perceptions of Political Parties.” Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties 29(4): 465–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ono, Yoshikuni, and Zilis, Michael. 2022. “Ascriptive Characteristics and Perceptions of Impropriety in the Rule of Law: Race, Gender, and Public Assessments of Whether Judges Can Be Impartial.” American Journal of Political Science 66(1): 43–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ono, Yoshikuni, and Zilis, Michael A.. 2023. “Do Americans Perceive Diverse Judges as Inherently Biased?” Politics, Groups, and Identities 11(2): 335–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2019. “Gender Equality in the Judiciary.” In Government at a Glance. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/54c10a5e-enGoogle Scholar
Pahis, Stratos. 2008. “Corruption in our Courts: What It Looks Like and Where It Is Hidden.” Yale Law Journal 118(8): 1900–1943.Google Scholar
Pancer, S. Mark, Brown, Steven D., and Barr, Cathy Widdis. 1999. “Forming Impressions of Political Leaders: A Cross-National Comparison. Political Psychology 20(2): 345–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Park, Sun Young, and Baek, Young Min. 2019. “Citizens’ Ambivalence Toward Female Politicians: Why Ambivalence Matters for Gender Equality in a Democracy.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 40(2): 309–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peresie, Jennifer L. 2004. “Female Judges Matter: Gender and Collegial Decisionmaking in the Federal Appellate Courts.” Yale Law Journal 114(7): 1759–1790.Google Scholar
Powers, Amanda, and Bannon, Alicia. 2022. “State Supreme Court Diversity — May 2022 Update.” Brennan Center for Justice. https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/state-supreme-court-diversity-may-2022-update.Google Scholar
Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2020. “Women’s Underrepresentation in the US Congress.” Daedalus 149(1): 40–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scherer, Nancy. 2023. Diversifying the Courts: Race, Gender, and Judicial Legitimacy. New York: NYU Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scherer, Nancy, and Curry, Brett. 2010. “Does Descriptive Race Representation Enhance Institutional Legitimacy? The Case of the US Courts.” The Journal of Politics 72(1): 90–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scholte, Jan Aart. 2011. “Towards Greater Legitimacy in Global Governance.” Review of International Political Economy 18(1): 110–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie A., and Mishler, William. 2005. “An Integrated Model of Women’s Representation. The Journal of Politics 67(2): 407–428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Setzler, Mark. 2019. “Measuring Bias Against Female Political Leadership.” Politics & Gender 15(4): 695–721.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shea, Patrick E., and Christian, Charlotte. 2017. “The Impact of Women Legislators on Humanitarian Military Interventions.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 61(10): 2043–2073.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Songer, Donald R., and Crews-Meyer, Kelley A.. 2000. “Does Judge Gender Matter? Decision Making in State Supreme Courts.” Social Science Quarterly 81(3): 750–762.Google Scholar
Stout, Christopher, and Tate, Katherine. 2013. “The 2008 Presidential Election, Political Efficacy, and Group Empowerment.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 1(2): 143–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sundström, Aksel, and Wängnerud, Lena. 2016. “Corruption as an Obstacle to Women’s Political Representation: Evidence from Local Councils in 18 European Countries.” Party Politics 22(3): 354–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sung, Hung-En. 2003. “Fairer Sex or Fairer System? Gender and Corruption Revisited.” Social Forces 82(2): 703–723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swamy, Anand, Knack, Stephen, Lee, Young, and Azfar, Omar. 2001. “Gender and Corruption.” Journal of Development Economics 64(1): 25–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, Benjamin J., and Petrow, Gregory A.. 2020. “Gender-Based Evaluations of Integrity Failures Women Leaders Judged Worse.” Public Opinion Quarterly 84(4): 936–957.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomsen, Danielle M., and Sanders, Bailey K.. 2020. “Gender Differences in Legislator Responsiveness.” Perspectives on Politics 18(4): 1017–1030.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valdini, Melody Ellis. 2013. "Electoral Institutions and the Manifestation of Bias: The Effect of the Personal Vote on the Representation of Women.” Politics & Gender 9(1): 76–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valdini, Melody E., and Shortell, Christopher. 2022. “The Politics of Women’s Presence on High Courts: The Conditional Nature of Cultivating Legitimacy Through Descriptive Representation.” Politics & Gender 18(3): 858–877.Google Scholar
Willis, Hannah, Smith, Jessica C., and Devine, Daniel. 2021. “Care to Trust? Gender and Trust in Leaders During the Coronavirus Pandemic.” Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties 31(Supplement 1): 232–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wroe, Andrew, Allen, Nicholas, and Birch, Sarah. 2013. “The Role of Political Trust in Conditioning Perceptions of Corruption.” European Political Science Review 5(2): 175–195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zilis, Michael A. 2021. “Cognitive Heuristics, Inter-Institutional Politics, and Public Perceptions of Insulated Institutions: The Case of the US Supreme Court.” International Journal of Public Opinion Research 33(1): 76–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Smart and Wood supplementary material

Smart and Wood supplementary material
Download Smart and Wood supplementary material(File)
File 101.2 KB