Hostname: page-component-cb9f654ff-9knnw Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-08-29T17:44:53.644Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Teratoepidemiology*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 July 2008

Marcus A. Klingberg  and
Cheri M. Papier
Marcus A. Klingberg
Affiliation:
Department of Epidemiology, Israel Institute for Biological ResearchNess-Ziona, Israel Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Sackler School of Medicine, Ramat-Aviv, Israel
Cheri M. Papier
Affiliation:
Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Sackler School of Medicine, Ramat-Aviv, Israel
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

A review of the field of human teratoepidemiology—the epidemiology of congenital malformations—is presented here along with a discussion of the importance of international collaboration in monitoring congenital malformations. Studies implicating various environmental teratogens such as drugs, industrial and agricultural chemicals, intrauterine infections, radiation and nutritional factors are discussed at some length as well as problems encountered in detecting human teratogenic agents.

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Biosocial Science , Volume 11 , Issue 3 , July 1979 , pp. 233 - 258
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1979

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Aarskog, D. (1975) Association between maternal intake of diazepam and oral clefts. Lancet, ii, 921.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alberman, E., Creasy, M., Elliott, M. & Spicer, C. (1976) Maternal factors associated with fetal chromosomal anomalies in spontaneous abortions. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaec. 83, 621.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Annegers, J.F., Hauser, W.A., Elveback, L.R., Anderson, V.E. & Kurland, L.T. (1978) Congenital malformations and seizure disorders in the offspring of parents with epilepsy. Int. J. Epidem. 7, 241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anon (1976). Some toxic chemicals in food. Lancet, i, 1004.Google Scholar
Anon (1976). Mercury in the environment. Lancet, i, 344.Google Scholar
Askrog, V. & Harvald, B. (1970). Teratogen effekt af inhalationsanaestetika. Nord. Med. 83, 498.Google Scholar
Babson, S.G. & Benson, R. C. (1971). Management of High-Risk Pregnancy and Intensive Care of the Neonate. C. V. Mosby, St Louis.Google Scholar
Bakir, F., Damluji, S.F., Amin-Zaki, L., Murtakha, M., Khalidi, A., Al-Rawi, N.Y., Takriti, S., Dhahir, H.I., Clarkson, T.W., Smith, J.C. & Doherty, R.A. (1973) Methylmercury poisoning in Iraq. Science, N.Y. 181, 230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Banister, P. (1970) Congenital malformations; preliminary report of an investigation of reduction deformities of the limbs, triggered by a pilot surveillance system. Can. med. Ass. J. 103, 466.Google ScholarPubMed
Bisanti, L., Bonetti, F., Caramaschi, F., Decorno, G., Favaretti, C., Giambelluca, S.E., Marni, E., Montesarchio, E., Puccinelli, V., Remotti, G., Volpato, C. & Zambrelli, E. (1979) Experiences of the accident of Seveso. In: Proceedings of the 6th Conference of the European Teratology Society, Budapest, September 1978 (in press).Google Scholar
Bjerkedal, T. (1977) Monitoring of birth defects as a method in the study of etiologic factors of congenital malformations. Paper presented at 2nd International Congress of Human Reproduction, Tel-Aviv, Israel.Google Scholar
Bjerkedal, T. & Bakketeig, L.S. (1975). Surveillance of congenital malformations and other conditions of the newborn. Int. J. Epidem. 4, 31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bleyer, W.A. & Breckenridge, R.J. (1970) Adverse drug reactions in the newborn. II. Prenatal aspirin and newborn homeostasis. J. Am. med. Ass. 213, 2049.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brent, R.L. (1976). Environmental factors: Radiation. In: Prevention of Embryonic, Fetal and Perinatal Disease, Vol. 3, p. 179. Edited by Brent, R. L. & Harris, M. I.. US Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Bethesda, Maryland.Google Scholar
Brent, R.L. (1979). Effects of ionizing radiation on growth and development. In: Contributions to Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Vol. 1. Epidemiologic Methods for Detection of Teratogens, p. 147. Edited by Klingberg, M.A. & Weatherall, J. A. C.Karger, Basel.Google Scholar
Carr, D.H. (1970) Chromosome studies in selected spontaneous abortions. 1. Conception after oral contraceptives. Can. med. Ass. J. 103, 343.Google ScholarPubMed
Carter, M.P. (1965). Discussion of a paper by B. C. S. Slater. In: Embryopathic Activity of Drugs, p. 253. Edited byRobson, J.M., Sullivan, F.M. and Smith, R.L.Little, Brown, Boston.Google Scholar
Carter, M.P. & Wilson, F.W. (1963). Antibiotics and congenital malformations. Lancet, i, 1267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, M.P. & Wilson, F. (1965). Antibiotics in early pregnacy and congenital malformations. Devi med. Child Neurol. 7, 353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Center for Disease Control (1977). Fetal alcohol syndrome. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 26, 184.Google Scholar
Chen, R. (1979). Statistical techniques in birth defects surveillance systems. In: Contributions to Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Vol. 1. Epidemiologic Methods for Detection of Teratogens, p. 184. Edited by Klingberg, M.A. and Weatherall, J.A.C.Karger, Basel.Google Scholar
Chen, R., Weissman, S.L., Salama, R. & Klingberg, M.A. (1970). Congenital dislocation of the hip (CDH). and seasonality: the gestational age of vulnerability to some seasonal factor. Am. J. Epidem. 92, 287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chung, C.S. & Myrianthopoulos, N.C. (1975). Factors affecting risk of congenital malformations. II. Effect of maternal diabetes on congenital malformations. Birth Defects Original Articles Series, 11, 23.Google ScholarPubMed
Clarren, S.K. & Smith, D.W. (1978). The fetal alcohol syndrome. New Engl. J. Med. 298, 1063.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coffey, V.P. & Jessop, W.J.E. (1955). Congenital abnomalities. Ir. J. Med. Sci. 30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, E.N., Brown, B.W., Bruce, D.L., Cascorbi, H.F., Corbett, T.G., Jones, T.W. & Whitcher, C.E. (1974). Occupational disease among operating room personnel: a national study. Anesthesiology, 41, 321.Google Scholar
Committee on Maternal Nutrition (1970). Maternal Nutrition and the Course of Pregnancy. Food and Nutrition Board, National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Cooper, L.Z. (1968). Intrauterine infections: birth defects. Birth defects Original Article Series, 4, 21.Google Scholar
Crombie, D.L., Pinsent, R.J.F.H., Slater, B.C., Fleming, D. & Cross, K.W. (1970). Teratogenic drugs—RCGP survey. Br. med. J. 4, 178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Croughs, W. & Visser, H.K.A. (1965). Familial iodide-induced goiter. Evidence for an abnormality in the pituitary–thyroid homeostatic control. J. Pediat. 67, 353CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cutting, R.T., Phuoc, T.H., Ballo, J.M., Benenson, M.W. & Evans, C.H. (1970). Congenital Malformations, Hydatidiform Moles, and Stillbirths in the Republic of Vietnam 1960–1969. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Czeizel, A., Vizelety, T. & Szentpéteri, J. (1972). Congenital dislocation of the hip in Budapest, Hungary. Br. J. prev. soc. Med. 26, 15.Google ScholarPubMed
Dekaban, A.S. (1968). Abnormalities in children exposed to X-radiation during various stages of gestation: tentative timetable of radiation injury to the human fetus. J. nucl. Med. 9, 471.Google Scholar
Dhadial, R.K., Machin, A.M. & Tait, S.M. (1970) Chromosomal anomalies in spontaneously aborted human fetuses. Lancet, ii, 20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, I., Anderson, M.M. & McCreadie, S.R. (1960) Transplacental transmission of busulfan (Myleran). in a mother with leukemia: production of fetal malformation and cytomegaly. Pediatrics, Springfield, 25, 85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dieulangard, P., Coignet, J. & Vical, J.C. (1966) Sur un cas d'ectro-phocomelia, peut-etre d'origine medicamenteuse. Bull. Fed. Gynec. Obstet. 18, 85.Google Scholar
Dodion-Fransen, J., Dekegel, D. & Thiry, L. (1973) Congenital varicella-zoster infection related to maternal disease in early pregnancy. Scand.J. Infect. Dis. 5, 149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doll, R. (1977) Strategy for detection of cancer hazards to man. Nature, Lond. 265, 589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dudgeon, J.A. (1969) Measles vaccines. Br. med. Bull. 25, 153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dudgeon, J.A. (1969) Infective causes of human malformations. Br. med. Bull. 32, 77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edmonds, L.D., Anderson, C.E., Flynt, J.W. Jr & James, L.M. (1978) Congenital centra nervous system malformations and vinyl chloride monomer exposure: a community study. Teratology, 17, 137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edmonds, L.D., Falk, H. & Nissim, J.E. (1975) Congenital malformations and vinyl chloride. Lancet, ii, 1095.Google Scholar
Eichner, E.R. & Hillman, R.S. (1973) Effect of alcohol on serum folate level. J. clin. Invest. 52, 584.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elizan, T.S., Ajero-Froelick, L., Fabiyi, A., Ley, A. & Sever, J.L. (1969) Viral infection in pregnancy and congenital CNS malformations in man. Archs Neurol. Chicago, 20, 115.Google ScholarPubMed
Emerson, D.J. (1962) Congenital malformations due to attempted abortion with aminopterin. Am. J. Obstet. Gynec. 84, 356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erickson, J.D., Cochran, W.M. & Anderson, C.E. (1979) Parental occupation and birth defects. A preliminary report. In: Contributions to Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Vol. 1. Epidemiologic Methods for Detection of Teratogens, p. 107. Edited by Klingberg, M. A. and Weatherall, J.A.C.. Karger, Basel.Google Scholar
Fedrick, J., Alberman, E.D. & Goldstein, H. (1971) Possible teratogenic effect of cigarette smoking. Nature, Lond. 231, 529.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finnegan, L. (1976) Clinical effects of pharmacologic agents on pregnancy, the fetus, and the neonate. Ann. NY. Acad. Sci. 28, 74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, W.D., Voorhess, M.L. & Gardner, L.I. (1963) Congenital hypothyroidism in an infant following maternal I131 therapy. J. Pediat. 62, 132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flynt, J.W. & Hay, S. (1979) International Clearinghouse for Birth Defects Monitoring Systems. In: Contributions to Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Vol. 1. Epidemiologic Methods for Detection of Teratogens, p. 44. Edited by Klingberg, M.A. and Weatherall, J.A.C.Karger, Basel.Google Scholar
Funatsu, I. (1971) A chlorobiphenyl induced fetopathy. Fukuoka Igaku Zasshi (Fukuoka Adamed.). 62, 139.Google Scholar
Funes-Cravioto, F., Zapata-Gayon, C., Kolmodin-Hedman, B., Lambert, B., Lindsten, J., Norberg, E., Nordenskjöld, M., Olin, R. & Swensson, A. (1977). Chromosome aberrations and sister-chromatid exchange in workers in chemical laboratories and rotoprinting factory and in children of women laboratory workers. Lancet, ii, 322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gal, I. (1972) Risks and benefits of the use of hormonal pregnancy test tablets. Nature, Lond. 240, 241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gal, I., Kirman, B. & Stern, J. (1967) Hormonal pregnancy tests and congenital malformations. Nature, Lond. 216, 83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
German, J., Kowal, A. & Ehlers, K.H. (1970) Trimethadione and teratogenesis. Teratology, 3, 349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goh, K. (1967) In: Research Report, p. 97. Medical Division, Oakridge Associated Universities, Springfield (Clearing House for Federal Science and Technological Information).Google Scholar
Goujard, J. & Rumeau-Rouquette, C. (1977) First-trimester exposure to progestagen/oestrogen and congenital malformations. Lancet, i, 482.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, L.H. & Tanaka, K.R. (1964) Congenital anomalies probably induced by cyclo-phosphamide. J. Am. med. Ass. 188, 423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenwald, P., Barlow, J.J., Nasca, P.C. & Burnett, W.S. (1971) Vaginal cancer after maternal treatment with synthetic estrogens. New Engl. J. Med. 285, 390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregg, N. (1941) Congenital cataract following German measles in the mother. Trans, ophthal. Soc. Aust. 3, 35.Google Scholar
Gropp, A. (1977) In: Report to Lombardy Regional Health Authority. Cited by Hay (1977).Google Scholar
Grossman, J. III (1977). Congenital syphilis. Teratology, 16, 217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grumbach, M.M. & Ducharme, J.R. (1960) The effects of androgens on fetal sexual development; androgen-induced female pseudohermaphrodism. Fert. Steril. 11, 157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haggard, H.W. & Jellinek, E.M. (1942) Alcohol Explored. Doubleday, New York.Google Scholar
Hakosalo, J. & Saxén, L. (1971) Influenza epidemic and congenital defects. Lancet, ii, 1346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanson, J.W., Streissguth, A.P. & Smith, D.W. (1978) The effects of moderate alcohol consumption during pregnancy on fetal growth and morphogenesis. J. Pediat. 92, 457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harada, M. (1978) Congenital Minamata disease: intrauterine methylmercury poisoning.Teratology, 18, 285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hardy, J.M.B., Azarowicz, E.N., Mannini, A., Medearis, D.N. Jr & Cooke, R.E. (1961) The effect of Asian influenza on the outcome of pregnancy, Baltimore, 1957–1958. Am. J. publ. Hlth., 51, 1182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harlap, S. & Davies, A.M. (1978a) The pill and births. In: The Jerusalem Study, Part 1: Text. Hebrew University of Jerusalem.Google Scholar
Harlap, S. & Davies, A.M. (1978b) The pill and birth defects. In: The Jerusalem study, Part 2: Tables. Hebrew University of Jerusalem.Google Scholar
Hartz, S.C., Heinonen, O.P., Shapiro, S., Siskind, V. & Slone, D. (1975) Antenatal exposure to meprobamate and chlordiazepoxide in relation to malformations, mental development, and childhood mortality. New Engl. J. Med. 292, 726.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hay, S. (1977) Seveso solicitude Nature, Lond. 267, 385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heinonen, O.P., Slone, D., Monson, R.R., Hook, E.B & Shapiro, S. (1977a) Cardiovascular birth defects and antenatal exposure to female sex hormones. New Engl. J. Med. 296, 67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heinonen, O.P., Slone, D. & Shapiro, S. (1977b) Birth Defects and Drugs in Pregnancy. Publishing Sciences Group, Littleton, Mass.Google Scholar
Herbst, A.L., Cole, P., Colton, T., Robboy, S.J. & Scully, R.E. (1977) Age-incidence and risk of diethylstilbestrol-related clear cell adenocarcinoma of the vagina and cervix. Am. J. Obstet. Gynec. 128, 43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herbst, A.L. & Scully, R.E. (1970) Adenocarcinoma of the vagina in adolescents—a report of 7 cases including 6 clear-cell carcinomas (so-called mesonephromas). Cancer, N.Y. 25, 745.3.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, R.M. (1973) Drugs ingested by pregnant women. Clin. Pharmac. Ther. 14, 654.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hurley, L.S. (1977) Nutritional deficiencies and excesses. In: Handbook of Teratology, Vol. 1, p. 261. Edited by Wilson, J.G., Fraser, F.C.Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
Infante, P.F. (1976a) The effect of lead on reproduction. In: Proceedings of Conference on Women and the Workplace, Washington, DC, June 1976.Google Scholar
Infante, P.F. (1976b) Oncogenic and mutagenic risks in communities with polyvinyl chloride production facilities. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 271, 49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Infante, P.F., Wagoner, J.K., McMichael, A.J., Waxweiler, R.J. & Falk, H. (1976) Genetic risks of vinyl chloride. Lancet, i, 734.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ingalls, T.H. & Klingberg, M.A. (1963) Implications of epidemic embryopathy for public health. In: Proceedings of the 91st Annual meeting of the American Public Health Association, Kansas City, November 1963.Google Scholar
Ingalls, T.H. & Klingberg, M.A. (1965) Implications of epidemic embryopathy for publichealth. Am. J.publ. Hlth, 55, 200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, A.V. (1948) Toxic effects of salicylate on the foetus and mother. J. Path. Bad. 60, 587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janerich, D.T., Dugan, J.M., Standfast, S.J. & Strite, L. (1977) Congenital heart disease and prenatal exposure to exogenous sex hormones. Br. med. J. 1, 1058.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Janerich, D.T., Flink, E.M. & Keogh, M.D. (1976) Down's syndrome and oral contraceptive usage. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaec. 83, 617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Janerich, D.T., Piper, J.M. & Glebatis, D.M. (1974) Oral contraceptives and congenital limb-reduction defects. New Engl. J. Med. 291, 697.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, K., Smith, D.W., Ulleland, C.N. & Streissguth, A.P. (1973) Pattern of malformation inoffspring of chronic alcoholic mothers. Lancet, i, 1267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaminsky, M., Rumeau-Rouquette, C. & Schwartz, D. (1976) Consummation d'alcool chezles femmes enceintes et issue de la grossesse. Larevuede'pidemiologie, Medecine Sociale et Sante Publique, 22, 27.Google Scholar
Kimbrough, R.D., Carter, C.D., Liddle, J.A., Cline, R.E. & Phillips, P.E. (1977) Epidemiology and pathology of a tetrachlorodibenzodioxin poisoning episode. Archs envir. Hlth, 32, 77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kleinman, H., Prince, J.T., Mathey, W.E., Rosenfield, A.B., Bearman, J.E. & Syverton, J.T. (1962). ECHO 9 virus infection and congenital abnormalities: a negative report. Pediatrics, Springfield, 29, 261.Google ScholarPubMed
Kline, J., Stein, Z.A., Susser, M. & Warburton, D. (1977) Smoking: a risk factor for spontaneous abortion. New Engl. J. Med. 297, 793.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klingberg, M.A., Chen, R., Chemke, J. & Levin, S. (1976) Rising rates of congenital dislocation of the hip. Lancet, i, 547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klinger, H.P., Glasser, M. & Kava, H.W. (1976) Contraceptives and the conceptus 1. Chromosome abnormalities of the fetus and neonate related to maternal contraceptive history. Obstet. Gynec, N. Y. 48, 40.Google Scholar
Klingberg, M.A. & Papier, C.M. (1979) Environmental teratogens. Their significance and epidemiologic methods of detection. In: Contributions to Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Vol. 1. Epidemiologic Methods for Detection of Teratogens, p. Edited by Klingberg, M. A. & Weatherall, J. A. C.Karger, Basel.Google Scholar
Knill-Jones, R.P., Newman, B.J. & Spence, A.A. (1975) Anaesthetic practice and pregnancy. Lancet, ii 807.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kopelman, A.E., McCullar, F.W. & Heggeness, L. (1975) Limb malformations following maternal use of haloperidol. J. Am. med. Ass. 231, 62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korones, S.B., Todaro, J., Roane, J.A. & Sever, J.L. (1970) Maternal virus infection after the first trimester of pregnancy and status of offspring to 4 years of age in a predominantly Negro population. J. Pediat. 77, 245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kučera, J. (1971) Rate and type of congenital anomalies among offspring of diabetic women. J. reprod. Med. 7, 73.Google ScholarPubMed
Kuratsune, M., Yoshimura, T., Matsuzaka, J. & Yamaguchi, A. (1972) Epidemiologic studyon Yusho, a poisoning caused by ingestion of rice oil contaminated with a commercial brand of polychlorinated biphenyls. Envir. Hlth Perspect. 1, 119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landesman-Dwyer, S., Keller, L.S. & Streissguth, A.P. (1978) Naturalistic observations of newborns: effects of maternal alcohol intake. Alcoholism: Clin. exp. Res. 2, 171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landsman, J.B., Grist, N.R. & Ross, C.A.C. (1964) ECHO 9 virus infection and congenital malformations. Br.J.prev. soc. Med. 18, 152.Google ScholarPubMed
Laurence, M., Miller, M., Vowles, M., Evans, K. & Carter, C. (1971) Hormonal pregnancy tests and neural tube malformations. Nature, Lond. 233, 495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazar, P., Gueguen, S. & Boué, J. et al. , (1973) Epidémiologie des avortements spontanes precoces: a'propose de 1469 avortements caryotypes. In: Les Accidents Chromosomiques de la Reproduction, p. 317.Edited by Boue, A & Thibault, C.. Institut National de la Sante et de la Recherche Medicale, Paris.Google Scholar
Leck, I. (1963) Teratogenic risks of disease and therapy. In: Contributions to Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Vol. 1. Epidemiologie Methods for Detection of Teratogens, p. 23. Edited by Klingberg, M. A. & Weatherall, J. A. C.Karger, Basel.Google Scholar
Lenz, W. (1962) Drugs and congenital abnormalities. Lancet, i, 45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lenz, W. (1964) Chemicals and malformations in man. In: Second International Conference on Congenital Malformations,New York City,July 1963, p. 263. International Medical Congress, New York.Google Scholar
Levin, J.N. (1971) Amphetamine ingestion with biliary atresia. J. Pediat. 79, 130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levy, E.P., Cohen, A. & Fraser, F.C. (1973) Hormone treatment during pregnancy and congenital heart defects. Lancet, i 611.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, R. (1977) Alcohol consumption during pregnancy and decreased birth-Weight. Am. J.publ Hlth, 61, 1154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Littlefield, L.G. & Mailhes, J.B. (1976) Comparison of chromosomal breakages in lymphocytes and fibroblasts from control women and women taking oral contraceptives. Fert. Steril. 26, 828.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loughnan, P.M., Gold, H. & Vance, J.C. (1973) Phenytoin teratogenicity in man. Lancet, i, 70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lund, C. (1936) The effect of chronic lead poisoning on reproductive capacity. Nord. Hyg. Tidskr. 18, 12.Google Scholar
McQuarrie, H.G., Scott, C.D., Ellsworth, H.S., Harris, J.W. & Stone, R.A. (1970) Cytogenetic studies on women using oral contraceptives and their progeny. Am. J. Obstet. Gynec. 108, 659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manson, M.M., Logan, W.P.D. & Loy, R.M. (1960) Rubella and Other Virus Infections During Pregnancy. Ministry of Health Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects No. 101.HM Stationery Office, London.Google Scholar
Martin, J.C., Martin, D.C. & Lund, C. et al. (1977) Maternal alcohol ingestion and cigarette smoking and their effects on newborn conditioning. Alcoholism: Clin. exp. Res. 1, 243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matsumoto, H.G., Koya, G. & Takeuchi, T. (1965) Fetal Minamata disease. A neuropatho-logical study of two cases of intrauterine intoxication by a methylmercury compound. J. Neuropath, exp. Neurol.24, 563.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mau, G. (1976) Smoking and the fetus. Lancet, i 972.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meberg, A., Halvorsen, S. & Ørstavik, I. (1977) Transitory thrombocytopenia in small-for-dates infants, possibly related to maternal smoking. Lancet, ii 303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Medalie, J.H., Makin, M., Alkalay, E., Yfe, J., Cochavi, Z. & Ehrlich, D. (1966) Congenital dislocation of the hip: a clinical–epidemiological study, Jerusalem 1954 to 1960. Israeli. med. Scis, 2, 212.Google ScholarPubMed
Medalie, J.H., Serr, D., Neufeld, H.N., Browin, M., Berandt, N., Sternberg, M., Sive, P.Schoenfeld, S., Fuchs, Z. & Karo, S. (1972). The use of medicines before and during pregnancy—preliminary results from an epidemiological study of congenital defects. In: Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, Vol. 27. Drugs and Fetal Development, p. 481. Edited by Klingberg, M. A. & Chemke, J.Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
Meltzer, H.G. (1956) Congenital anomalies due to attempted abortion with 4-aminopteroyl-glutamic acid. J. Am. med. Ass. 161, 1253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, M.B., Jonas, B.S. & Tonascia, J.A. (1976) Perinatal events associated with maternalsmoking during pregnancy. Am. J. Epidem. 103, 464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milkovich, L. & van den Berg, B.J. (1974) Effects of prenatal meprobamate and chlordiaz-epoxide hydrochloride on human embryonic and fetal development. New Engl. J. Med. 291, 1268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, R.W. (1969) Delayed radiation effects in atomic-bomb survivors. Science, N.Y. 166, 569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Monif, G.R.G., Egan, E.A. II, Held, B. & Errzaman, D.V. (1972) The correlation of maternal cytomegalovirus infection during varying stages in gestation with neonatal involvement. J.Pediat. 80, 17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Montgomery, J.R., Flanders, R.W. & Yow, M.D. (1973) Congenital anomalies and herpes virus infection. Am.J. Dis. Child. 126, 364.Google Scholar
Morton, M.S., Elwood, P.C. & Abernethy, M. (1976) Trace elements in water and congenital malformations of the central nervous system in South Wales. Br. J. prev. soc. Med. 30, 36.Google ScholarPubMed
Moser, R.H. (ed.) (1969) Diseases of Medical Progress: A Study of Iatrogenic Diseases, 3rd edn.Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.Google Scholar
Murphy, D.P. (1929) The outcome of 625 pregnancies in women subjected to pelvic radium or roentgen irradiation. Am. J. Obstet. Gynec. 18, 179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagura, S. (1955) Zur Aetiologie der angeborenen Hüftberrenkung. Zentbl. Chir. 80, 1933.Google Scholar
National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (1977) Critical Review of the Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration, Rockville, Maryland.Google Scholar
Nelson, M.M. & Forfar, J.O. (1971) Associations between drugs administered during pregnancy and congenital abnormalities of the fetus. Br. med. J. 1, 523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nicholson, H.O. (1968) Cytotoxic drugs in pregnancy. J. Obstet. Gynaec. Br. Connonw. 75, 307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nishimura, H. (1964) Chemistry and prevention of Congenital Anomalies. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.Google Scholar
Nishimura, H. (1979) Detection of environmental teratogens. Some thoughts on the correlation between human and experimental teratogenesis. In: Contributions to Epidemiology and Bio-statistics, Vol. 1. Epidemiologic Methods for Detection of Teratogens, p. 78. Edited by Klingberg, M. A. & Weatherall, J. A. C.Karger, Basel.Google Scholar
Nora, A.H. & Nora, J.J. (1975) A syndrome of multiple congenital anomalies associated with teratogenic exposure. Archs envir. Hlth, 30, 17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nora, J.J., Nora, A.H., Perinchief, A.G., Ingram, J.W., Fountain, A.K. & Peterson, M.J. (1976). Congenital abnormalities and first-trimester exposure to progestagen-oestrogen. Lancet, i, 313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nora, J.J., Nora, A.H., Sommerville, R.J., Hili, R.M. & McNamara, D.G. (1967) Maternal exposure to potential teratogens. J. Am. med. Ass. 202, 1065.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nora, J.J., Vargo, T.A., Nora, A.H., Love, K.E. & McNamara, D.G. (1970) Dexamphetamine: a possible environmental trigger in cardiovascular malformations. Lancet, i 1290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oakley, G.P. (1974) In discussion of Miller, How environmental effects on child health are recognized. Pediatrics, Springfield, 53, 792.Google Scholar
Oakley, G.P. Jr, Flynt, J.W. Jr & Falek, A. (1973) Hormonal pregnancy tests and congenital malformations. Lancet, ii, 256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogi, D. & Hamada, Y. (1965) Pesticide exposed human foetuses: case reports of intrauterine deaths and congenitally defective babies. Nippon Sanka-Fujinka Gakkai Zasshi (J. Jap. obstet. gynec. Soc.). 17, 569.Google Scholar
Pap, K. (1956) Einfluss der Jahreszeiten auf die Häufigkeit angeborenen Hüftverrenkung. Zentbl. Chir. 81, 2388.Google Scholar
Parker, H.M. & Taylor, L.S. (1971) Basic radiation protection criterla. Report No. 39, National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Washington.Google Scholar
Paul, C. (1860) Mémoires originaux. Archives générates de medecine, p. 513.Google Scholar
Peckham, C.H. & King, R.W. (1963) A study of intercurrent conditions observed during pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynec. 87, 609.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, W.F. (1969) Pregnancy outcome following oral contraceptive therapy. Obstet. Gynec, N.Y. 34, 363.Google ScholarPubMed
Pettifor, J.M. & Benson, R. (1975) Congenital malformations associated with the administration of oral anticoagulants during pregnancy. J. Pediat. 86, 459.Google ScholarPubMed
Pharoah, P.O.D., Alberman, E., Doyle, P. & Chamberlain, G. (1977) Outcome of pregnancy among women in anaesthetic practice. Lancet, i 34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powell, P.D. & Johnstone, J.M. (1962) Phenmetrazine and foetal abnormalities. Br. med. J. 2, 1327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rawls, W.E., Desmyter, J. & Melnick, J.L. (1968) Serologic diagnosis and fetal involvement in maternal rubella: criteria for abortion. J. Am. med. Ass. 203, 627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Record, R.G. & Edwards, J.H. (1958) Environmental influences related to the actiology of congenital dislocation of the hip. Br. J. prev. soc. Med. 12, 8.Google Scholar
Remington, J.S. (1968) Intrauterine infections: birth defects. Birth Defects Original Article Series 4, 47.Google Scholar
Richards, I.D.G. (1969) Congenital malformations and environmental influences in pregnancy. Br. J.prev. soc. Med. 23, 218.Google ScholarPubMed
Robinson, G.W. (1968) Birth characteristics of children with congenital dislocation of the hip. Am. J. Epidem. 87, 275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, S.C. (1971) Pregnancy outcome following oral contraceptives. J. Obstet. Gynec. 109, 354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothaman, K.J. & Louik, C. (1978) Oral contraceptives and birth defects. New. Engl. J. Med. 299, 522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Royal College of General practitioners Oral Contraceptive Study (1976) The outcome of pregnancy in former oral contraceptive users. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaec. 83, 608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rush, D. & Kass, E.H. (1972) Maternal smoking: a reassessment of the association with perinatal mortality. Am. J. Epidem. 96, 183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutman, J.Y. (1973) Anticonvulsants and fetal damages. New Engl. J. Med. 289, 696.Google Scholar
Safra, M.J. & Oakley, G.P. Jr. (1975) Association between cleft lip with or without cleft palate and prenatal exposure to diazepam. Lancet, ii 478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Savage, M.O., Moosa, A. & Gordon, R.R. (1973) Maternal varicella infection as a cause of fetal malformations. Lancet, i 352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saxén, I. (1975) Associations between oral clefts and drugs taken during pregnancy. Int. J. Epidem. 4, 37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saxén, I. & Saxén, L. (1975) Association between maternal intake of diazepam and oral clefts. Lancet, ii 498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaffer, A.J. (1965) Diseases of the Newborn, 2nd edn.Saunders, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Schwartz, D., Goujard, J. & Kaminski, M. et al. . (1972) Smoking and pregnancy: results of a prospective study of 6,989 women. Revue eur. Etud. clin. biol. 17, 867.Google Scholar
Sever, J.L., Fuccillo, D.A. & Bowes, W.A. Jr. (1976) Environmental factors: infection and immunizations. In: Prevention of Embyronic, Fetal and Perinatal Disease, Vol. 3, p. 109. Editedby R.L., Brent & Harris, M. I.US Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Bethesda, Maryland.Google Scholar
Shapiro, L.R., Graves, Z.R. & Hirschhorn, K. (1972) Oral contraceptives and in vivo cyto-genetic studies. Obstet. Gynec, N.Y. 39, 190.Google Scholar
Shapley, D. (1973) Herbicide: AAAS study finds dioxin in Vietnamese fish. Science, N.Y. 180, 285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, E.B. & Steinback, H.L. (1968) Aminopterin-induced fetal malformation. Am. J. Dis. Child. 115, 477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shotton, D. & Monie, I.W. (1963) Possible teratogenic effect of chlorambucil on a human fetus. J.Am. med. Ass. 186, 74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smithells, R.W. (1965). The problem of teratogenicity. Practitioner, 194, 104.Google ScholarPubMed
Smithells, R.W. (1976) Environmental teratogens of man. Br. med. Bull. 32, 27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smithells, R.W., Sheppard, S. & Schorah, C.J. (1976) Vitamin deficiencies and neural tube defects. Archs Dis. Childh. 51, 944.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snyder, R.D. (1971) Congenital mercury poisoning. New Engl. J. Med. 284, 1014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sokal, J.E. & Lessmann, E.M. (1960). Effects of cancer chemotherapeutic agents on human fetus. J.Am. med. Ass. 172, 1765.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
South, M.A., Tompkins, W.A.F., Morris, C.R. & Rawls, W.E. (1969) Congenital malformation of the central nervous system associated with the genital type (type 2). herpes virus. J. Pediat. 75, 13.Google ScholarPubMed
Speidel, B.D. & Meadow, S.R. (1974) Epilepsy, anticonvulsants and congenital malformations. Drugs, 8, 354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stein, Z., Susser, M., Warburton, D., Wittes, J. & Kline, J. (1975) Spontaneous abortion as a screening device: the effect of fetal survival on the incidence of birth defects. Am. J. Epidem. 102, 275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stenchever, M.A., Jarvis, J.A. & Kreger, K. (1969) Effect of selected estrogens and progestins on human chromosomes in vitro. Obstet. Gynec, N.Y. 34, 249.Google Scholar
Stettner, E. (1921) Ein witerer Fall einer schädingung einer menschlichen frucht durch Roentgen Bestrahlung. Jb. Kinderheilkd. Phys. Erzieh. 95, 43.Google Scholar
Streissguth, A.P. (1978) Fetal alcohol syndrome: an epidemiologic perspective., Am. J. Epidem. 107, 467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Streissguth, A.P., Martin, D.C. & Barr, H.M. (1977) Neonatal brazelton assessment and relationship to maternal alcohol intake. In: Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, 1977.Google Scholar
Takeuchi, T. & Matsumoto, H. (1969) Minamata disease of human fetuses. In: methods for Teratological Studies in Experimental Animals and Man. Edited by Nishimura, H. & Miller, R.W.Igaku Shoin, Tokyo.Google Scholar
Taki, I., Hisanaga, S. & Amagase, Y. (1969) Report on Yusho (chlorobiphenyls poisoning): pregnant women and their fetuses. Fukuoka Igaku Zasshi (Fukuoka Ada med.). 60, 471.Google Scholar
Takizawa, Y. (1970). Studies on the Niigata episode of the Minamata disease outbreak. Ada med. bioi, Niigata, 17, 293.Google ScholarPubMed
Takizawa, Y., Kosaka, T. & Sugal, R. (1972) Studies on the cause of the Niigata episode of the Minamata disease outbreak. Ada med. bioi, Niigata, 19, 193.Google ScholarPubMed
Tenbrinck, M.S. & Buchin, S.Y. (1975) Fetal alcohol syndrome. Report of a case. J. Am. med. Ass. 232, 1144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thiersch, J.B. (1952) Therapeutic abortions with a folic acid antagonist, 4-aminopteroylglutamiccid (4-amino-P.G.A). administered by the oral route. Am. J. Obstet. Gynec, N.Y. 63, 1298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timson, J. (1969) Chromosomes and an oral contraceptive (Lyndiol 2–5). J Reprod. Fert. 19, 581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, G. & Collings, E. (1975) Fetal effects of regular salicylate ingestion in pregnancy. Lancet, ii 338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaisman, A.I. (1967) Work in surgical theatres and its influence on the health of anesthesiologists. Eksp. Khir. Anesteziol. 3, 44.Google Scholar
Vessey, M., Doll, R., Peto, R., Johnson, B. & Wiggins, P. (1976) A long-term follow-up study of women using different methods of contraception-an interim report. J. biosoc. Sci. 8, 373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Visser, G.H.A., Huisjes, H.J. & Elshove, J. (1976) Anticonvulsants and fetal malformations. Lancet, i 970.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Voorhess, M.L. (1967) Masculinization of the female fetus associated with norethindrone mestranol therapy during pregnancy. J. Pediat. 71, 128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warkany, J. (1975) A warfarin embryopathy? Am. J. Dis. Child. 129, 287.Google ScholarPubMed
Warkany, J., Beaudry, P.H. & Hornstein, S. (1959) Attempted abortion with aminopterin (4-aminopteroylglutamic acid). Am. J. Dis. Child. 97, 274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weissman, S.L. & Salama, R. (1966) Treatment of congenital dislocation of the hip in the newborn infant. J. Bone Jt Surg. 48-A 1319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weissman, S.L. & Salama, R. (1966) Treatment of congenital dislocation of the hip in the newborn infant. J. BoneJt Surg. 51, 601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wenger, F. (1967) Necrosis cerebral masiva del feto en cases de encefalitis equina Venezuelana. Investigation Clinica, 21, 13.Google Scholar
Wilkings, L. (1960) Masculinization of female fetus due to use of orally given progestins. J. Am. med.Ass. 172, 1028.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, J.G. (1973) Environment and Birth Defects. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Wilson, J.G. (1976) Environmental factors: teratogenic drugs. In: Prevention of Embryonic, Fetaland Perinatal Disease, Vol. 3., p. 147. Edited by Brent, R.L. & Harris, M. I.. US Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Bethesda, Maryland.Google Scholar
Wilson, J.G. (1977a) Embryotoxicity of drugs in man. In: Handbook of Teratology, Vol. 1. General Principles and Etiology, p. 309. Edited by Wilson, J. G. & Fraser, F. C.Plenum, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, J.G. (1977b) Teratogenic effects of environmental chemicals. Fedn Proc Fedn Am. Socs exp.Biol. 36, 1698.Google ScholarPubMed
Winick, M. (1970) Fetal malnutrition. Clin. Obstet. Gynec. 13, 526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolff, J. (1969) Iodide-goiter and the pharmacologic effects of excess iodide. Am. J. Med. 47, 101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, J.W., Johnson, K.G. & Omori, Y. (1967) In utero exposure to the Hiroshima atomic bomb. An evaluation of head size and mental retardation: twenty years later. Pediatrics, Springfield, 39, 385.Google ScholarPubMed
Yamazaki, J.M., Wright, S.W. & Wright, P.M. (1954) Outcome of pregnancy in women exposed to the atomic bomb in Nagasaki. Am. J. Dis. Child. 87, 448.Google Scholar
Zachai, E.H., Mellman, W.J., Neiderer, B. & Hanson, J.W. (1975) The fetal trimethadione syndrome. J. Pediat. 87, 280.Google Scholar