¹ Brandenburg, Hugo, ‘S. Stefano Rotondo: der letzte Großbau der Antike in Rom; die Typologie des Baues; die Ausstattung der Kirche; die kunstgeschichtliche Stellung des Kirchenbaues und seiner Ausstattung’ in Brandenburg, Hugo (ed.), Santo Stefano Rotondo in Roma: archeologia, storia dell'arte, restauro: Archäologie, Bauforschung, Geschichte; atti del convegno internazionale, Roma 10–13 ottobre 1996 (Wiesbaden, 2000), pp 35–63Google Scholar.

² Krautheimer, Richard, ‘Santo Stefano Rotondo in Rome and the rotunda of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem’ in idem (ed.), Studies in early Christian, medieval and renaissance art (New York, 1969), pp 69–106Google Scholar; David-Weyer, Caecilia, ‘S. Stefano Rotondo in Rome and the Oratory of Theodore I’ in Tronzo, William (ed.), Italian church decoration of the Middle Ages and early Renaissance (Bologna, 1989), pp 61–80Google Scholar; Brandenburg, Hugo, Ancient churches of Rome from the fourth to the seventh century: the dawn of Christian architecture in the west (Turnhout, 2005), pp 200–13Google Scholar; Taylor, Rabun, Rinne, Katherine Wentworth and Kostof, Spiro, Rome: an urban history from antiquity to the present (Cambridge, 2016), p. 171CrossRefGoogle Scholar; James, Liz, Mosaics in the medieval world: from late antiquity to the fifteenth century (Cambridge, 2017), pp 196, 285–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³ David-Weyer, ‘S. Stefano’, pp 70–80; Brandenburg, Churches, 205; James, Mosaics, pp 246, 281, 285–7.

⁴ Brandenburg, Churches, pp 204, 213; Taylor et al., Rome, pp 171–2, 208–09; James, Mosaics, p. 285.

⁵ Ceschi, Carlo, S. Stefano Rotondo (Rome, 1982), p. 127Google Scholar.

⁶ Antal Molnár, ‘Una struttura imperfetta: le instituzioni religiose ungheresi a Roma (secoli XI–XVIII)’ in Antal Molnár, Giovanni Pizzorusso and Matteo Sanfilippo (eds), Chiese e nationes a Roma: dalla Scandinavia ai Balcani, secoli XV–XVIII (Rome, 2017), pp 117–31.

⁷ Church, Stephen, ‘Political discourse at the court of Henry II and the making of the new kingdom of Ireland’ in History, cii, no. 5 (Dec. 2017), pp 808–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Colin Veach, ‘From kingdom to colony: framing the English conquest of Ireland’ in English Historical Review (forthcoming). I am grateful to Dr. Veach for sharing a copy of this article in advance of its publication.

⁸ Bracken, Damian, ‘Mac Briain, Donnchad [Donough O'Brien] (d. 1064)’ in Matthew, H. C. G. and Harrison, Brian (eds.), Oxford dictionary of national biography: from the earliest times to the year 2000 (60 vols, Oxford, 2004), xxxv, 65–7Google Scholar; Mhaonaigh, Máire Ní, Brian Boru: Ireland's greatest king? (Stroud, 2007), pp 101–07Google Scholar; eadem, ‘Donnchad’ in James McGuire and James Quinn (eds), Dictionary of Irish biography: from the earliest times to the year 2002 (9 vols, Cambridge, 2009), iii, 386–7; Casey, Denis, ‘A man of no mean standing: the career and legacy of Donnchad mac Briain (d. 1064)’ in Peritia, xxx (2019), pp 29–57Google Scholar. See also, Gwynn, Aubrey, The Irish church in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, ed. O'Brien, Gerard (Dublin, 1992), pp 36, 86–7Google Scholar; Duffy, Seán, ‘See Rome and die: the burial-place of Donnchad mac Briain’ in History Ireland, xxii, no. 1 (2014), pp 6–7Google Scholar.

⁹ Denis Casey, ‘A reconsideration of the authorship and transmission of Cogadh Gáedhel re Gallaibh’ in Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy: Archaeology, Culture, History, Literature, 113C (2013), pp 158–9; idem, ‘A man’. That Donnchad's grandsons Cennétig and Conchobor were the first to use the surname is observed by ibid., pp 45–6.

¹⁰ All annals references are given by year, as opposed to page and volume number. Annals of Inisfallen MS. Rawlinson B. 503 (hereafter, AI), ed. Seán Mac Airt (Dublin, 1951), 1064.5; Annals of Loch Cé (hereafter, ALC), ed. William Hennessy (2 vols, London, 1857), 1064.3; Annals of Ulster (hereafter, AU), ed. William Hennessy and Bartholomew MacCarthy (4 vols, Dublin, 1887‒1901), 1064.4.

¹¹ Annals of Tigernach (hereafter, Tig.), ed. and trans. Whitley Stokes (2 vols, Felinfach, 1993), 1064.2; Chronicum Scotorum, ed. William Hennessy (London, 1866), 1064; Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland (hereafter, AFM), ed. John O'Donovan (7 vols, Dublin, 1990), 1064.6.

¹² The Annals of Clonmacnoise, being annals of Ireland from the earliest period to A.D. 1408, ed. Denis Joseph Murphy (Dublin, 1896), p. 179, sub anno 1063.

¹³ AI 1064.7; ALC 1064.7; AU 1064.9.

¹⁴ Casey, ‘A man’, p. 44 n. 74

¹⁵ Marianus Scottus, Chronicon, 1087 (=1065); Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores, v, pp 559; Marie Therese Flanagan, The transformation of the Irish church in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries (Woodbridge, 2010), p. 231; Casey, ‘A man’, p. 44.

¹⁶ Gwynn, Irish church, p. 88. For the tradition of Irish pilgrimage to Rome, see also Donnchadh Ó Corráin, The Irish church, its reform, and the English invasion (Dublin, 2017), pp 33–4.

¹⁷ David James, ‘Two medieval Arabic accounts of Ireland’ in Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, cviii (1978), pp 6–7.

¹⁸ David-Weyer, ‘S. Stefano’, p. 69; Duffy, ‘Rome’, p. 7; James, Mosaics, p. 285.

¹⁹ Ceschi, S. Stefano, pp 187–9. For the cult of Gregory (commemorated at least twice annually in the Latin Church, on 12 March and 3 September), see John O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish saints (9 vols, Dublin, 1875–1905), iii, 334–5, 850–51; Alan Thacker, ‘Memorializing Gregory the Great: the origin and transmission of a papal cult in the seventh and early eighth centuries’ in Early Medieval Europe, vii, no. 1 (1998), pp 59–84; Paul Hayward, ‘Gregory the Great as “apostle of the English” in post-conquest Canterbury’ in Journal of Ecclesiastical History, lv, no. 1 (Jan. 2004), pp 19–57; Máire Herbert, ‘Representation of Gregory the Great in Irish sources of the pre-Viking era’ in Elizabeth Mullins and Diarmuid Scully (eds), Listen, o Isles, unto me: studies in medieval word and image in honour of Jennifer O'Reilly (Cork, 2011), pp 181–90.

²⁰ André Wilmart, ‘La Trinité des Scots à Rome et les notes du Vat. Lat. 378’ in Revue Bénédictine, xxxxi (1929), pp 218–30; idem, ‘Finian parmi les moines romains de la Trinité des Scots’ in Revue Bénédictine, xxxxiv (1932), pp 359–61; Anselmo M. Tommasini, Irish saints in Italy, trans. J. F. Scanlan (London, 1937), pp 94–9; Guy Ferrari, Early Roman monasteries: notes for the history of the monasteries and convents at Rome from the V through the X century (Vatican City, 1957), pp 333–5; Flanagan, Transformation, pp 230–31; Ó Corráin, Irish church, p. 34.

²¹ Ferrari, Roman monasteries, p. 335; Gillian Murphy, ‘The coarb of Peter: Innocent III and Irish monasticism’ in John Moore (ed.), Pope Innocent III and his world (Ashgate, 1999), p. 141.

²² Marianus Scottus, Chronicon, 1072 (=1050), v, pp 558; Alan Orr Anderson, Early sources of Scottish history, A.D. 500 to 1286 (2 vols, Edinburgh, 1922), i, 588; Benjamin T. Hudson, Kings of Celtic Scotland (Westport, CT, 1994), p. 142.

²³ Francis J. Byrne, Irish kings and high kings (rev. ed., Dublin, 2001), pp 257–9; Denis Casey, ‘Brian Boru, the Book of Armagh, and the Irish church in the tenth and eleventh centuries’ in Seán Duffy (ed.), Medieval Dublin XVI: Proceedings of Clontarf 1014–2014, National Conference Marking the Millennium of the Battle of Clontarf (Dublin, 2017), pp 103–21; Máire Ní Mhaonaigh, ‘Glorious by association: the obituary of Brian Boru’ in ibid., pp 170–87; Casey, ‘A man’, p. 34.

²⁴ Ní Mhaonaigh, Brian Boru, pp 53–4; Clare Downham, ‘Stylistic contrast and narrative function in Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib’ in I.H.S., xxxix, no. 156 (Nov. 2015), pp 560, 567.

²⁵ Ní Mhaonaigh, Brian Boru, pp 101–02; Seán Duffy, Brian Boru and the Battle of Clontarf (Dublin, 2014), pp 220–22.

²⁶ David-Weyer, ‘S. Stefano’, pp 61–2, 67, 75–7; Brandenburg, Churches, p. 213.

²⁷ A martyrology of four cities: Metz, Cologne, Dublin, Lund, ed. Pádraig Ó Riain (London, 2008), pp 102–03 (9 June), whose entry provides some historical and narrative detail; The martyrology of the Regensburg Schottenkloster, ed., idem (London, 2019), p. 86 (9 June). The possibly sixth-century Passio SS. Primi et Feliciani (Bibliotheca Hagiographica Latina no. 6922) appears in the eleventh-century Schottenkloster manuscript, Brussels, Bibliothèque royale de Belgique, Ms. 64, ff 98r–100v, and is edited in another version by Daniel Papebroch in Acta Sanctorum Iun. II, cols 152–4.

²⁸ Compare Clare E. Stancliffe, ‘Red, white and blue martyrdom’ in Dorothy Whitelock, Rosamund McKitterick and David N. Dumville (eds), Ireland in early medieval Europe: studies in memory of Kathleen Hughes (Cambridge, 1982), pp 21–46.

²⁹ Einar Joranson, ‘The Great German Pilgrimage of 1064–1065’ in Louis J. Paetow (ed.), The Crusades and other historical essays presented to Dana C. Munro by his former students (New York, 1928), 9–14; Fritz Lošek, ‘Et bellum inire sunt coacti: the Great German Pilgrimage of 1065’ in Michael W. Herren (ed.), Latin culture in the eleventh century: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Medieval Latin Studies, Cambridge, September 9–12, 1998 (2 vols, Turnhout, 2002), ii, 62–4, 69–70; Stefan Huppertz-Wild, ‘Die Jerusalemwallfahrt Bischof Gunthers von Bamberg im 1064/65’ in Bericht des Historischen Vereins Bamberg, clvii (2021), pp 11–39; Elisabeth M. Richenhagen, Schon stehen wir in Deinen Toren, Jerusalem: Pilgerwesen und Jerusalembild am Vorabend des Ersten Kreuzzuges (Berlin, 2023), pp 121–4, 283–90.

³⁰ Joranson, ‘Great German Pilgrimage’, pp 4, 6; Richenhagen, Schon stehen wir, p. 286.

³¹ Marianus Scottus, Chronicon, 1086 (=1064), 1087 (=1065), v, pp 558–9. Only brief obits for Niall mac Eochada, king of Ulaid, and Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, rex Britannorum, separate the entries for the pilgrimages to Jerusalem and Rome, which bookend Marianus’ account of 1064–65.

³² Joranson, ‘Great German Pilgrimage’, pp 9–16; Lošek, ‘Bellum inire’, pp 63–4; Richenhagen, Schon stehen wir, pp 121–4, 286. Letters to the pope and emperor communicated the pilgrim leaders' intent to depart, while there would almost certainly have been other letters which do not survive.

³³ For Ireland and Germany in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, see Gwynn, Irish church, pp 41–4; Donnchadh Ó Corráin, ‘Foreign connexions and domestic politics: Killaloe and the Uí Briain in twelfth-century hagiography’ in Ireland in early medieval Europe, pp 213–31; Dagmar Ó Riain-Raedel, ‘Irish Benedictine monasteries on the Continent’ in Martin Browne and Colmán Ó Clabaigh (eds), The Irish Benedictines: a history (Dublin, 2005), pp 25–63; eadem, ‘Cashel and Germany: the documentary evidence’ in D. Bracken and D. Ó Riain-Raedel (eds), Ireland and Europe in the twelfth century: reform and renewal (Dublin, 2006), pp 176–217.

³⁴ For these traditions, see Casey, ‘A man’, pp 49–50.

³⁵ David A. Pelteret, ‘Eleventh-century Anglo-Saxon long-haul travelers: Jerusalem, Constantinople and beyond’ in Stacy S. Klein, William Schipper and Shannon Lewis-Simpson (eds), The maritime world of the Anglo-Saxons (Tempe, AZ, 2014), pp 76–9, 91.

³⁶ James, Mosaics, pp 286–7.

³⁷ For the Holy Sepulchre's importance in the western imagination after its destruction in 1009, see Shlomo D. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem in the Arab period, 638–1099’ in Jerusalem Cathedra, ii (1982), pp 168–96; Daniel F. Callahan, ‘Jerusalem in the monastic imaginations of the early eleventh century’ in Haskins Society Journal, vi (1995), pp 122–4. For ideas of eines eschatologischen ‘Standortvorteils’ (‘an eschatological “locational advantage”’) to death and burial in Jerusalem, as well as of eines transportablen Jerusalem (‘a transportable Jerusalem’), see Richenhagen, Schon stehen wir, pp 290–98.

³⁸ Gwynn, Irish church, p. 88; Flanagan, Transformation, pp 46–8; Anne J. Duggan, ‘Sicut ex scriptis vestris accepimus: Innocent II and the insulae Britanniae et Hiberniae’ in John Doran and Damian J. Smith (eds), Pope Innocent II (1130–43): the world vs the city (London, 2016), p. 101 n. 206. For an alternative narrative of these relations’ origins, compare Dan Armstrong, ‘Gregory VII, Lanfranc, and Ireland: papal relations at the periphery’ in idem, Áron Kecskés, Charles C. Rozier, and Leonie Hicks (eds.), Borders and the Norman world: frontiers and boundaries in medieval Europe (Woodbridge, 2023), pp 149–70.

³⁹ Although the precise legal terminology postdates the twelfth century, it corresponds well with both the theory and practice of legatine missions in our period: see Richard A. Schmutz, ‘Medieval papal representatives: legates, nuncios and judges-delegate’ in Studia Gratiani, xv (1972), pp 441–63; Marie Therese Flanagan, ‘Hiberno-Papal relations in the late twelfth century’ in Archivium Hibernicum, xxxiv (1977), pp 55–70; Gwynn, Irish church, pp 116–54; Paul C. Ferguson, Medieval papal representatives in Scotland: legates, nuncios, and judges-delegate, 1125–1286 (Edinburgh, 1997); Claudia Zey and Maria Pia Alberzoni, ‘Legati e delegati papali (secoli XII–XIII): stato della ricera e questioni aperti’ in eaedem (eds), Legati e delegati papali: profili, ambiti d'azione e tipologie di intervento nei secoli XII–XIII (Milan, 2013), pp 3–27.

⁴⁰ Gwynn, Irish church, pp 125–9; John Fleming, Gille of Limerick (c.1070–1145): architect of a medieval church (Dublin, 2001), pp 43–6. The suggestion that Gille had been preceded as legate by Máel Muire Ua Dúnáin from c.1101–11 has been questioned: see Gwynn, Irish church, pp 116–25; Donnchadh Ó Corráin, ‘Mael Muire Ua Dúnáin (1040–1117), reformer’ in Pádraig de Brún, Seán Ó Coileáin and Pádraig Ó Riain (eds), Folia Gadelica: aistí ó iardhaltaí leis a bronnadh ar R. A. Breatnach (Cork, 1983), pp 47–53.

⁴¹ Bernard of Clairvaux, Vita S. Malachiae in Jean Leclercq, C. H. Talbot and H. M. Rochais (eds), S. Bernardi opera (8 vols in 9, Rome, 1957–77), iii, 310, 316–19; Gwynn, Irish church, pp 193–4, 198–9, 206–07; Ó Corráin, Irish church, pp 76–7.

⁴² Bernard, Vita S. Malachiae, pp 318–19. See also Henry A. Jefferies, ‘Desmond: the early years and the career of Cormac Mac Carthy’ in Journal of the Cork Historical and Archaeological Society, lxxxviii (1983), pp 89–90; Gwynn, Irish church, pp 206–08; Marie Therese Flanagan, ‘High-kings with opposition, 1072–1166’ in Prehistoric and early medieval Ireland, pp 919–21.

⁴³ Gwynn, Irish church, pp 128, 210–5; Flanagan, ‘High-kings’, pp 920–21; Ó Corráin, Irish church, p. 78.

⁴⁴ Tig. 1138.5, 1138.6. See also Donnchadh Ó Corráin, Ireland before the Normans (Dublin, 1972), pp 157–8; Jefferies, ‘Desmond’, p. 96.

⁴⁵ Bernard, Vita S. Malachiae, pp 342, 344–5. Bernard implies that Malachy's retinue on the road to Rome may have been considerably larger. See also Marie Therese Flanagan, ‘St Malachy, St Bernard of Clairvaux, and the Cistercian Order’ in Archivium Hibernicum, lxviii (2015), pp 295–8; Ó Corráin, Irish church, p. 80.

⁴⁶ Gwynn, Irish church, pp 134–5. Alternatively, a birth near Waterford is suggested by Henry Cotton, James B. Leslie, W. H. Rennison and Iain Knox, Clergy of Waterford, Lismore, and Ferns: biographical succession lists (rev. ed., Belfast, 2008), p. 345.

⁴⁷ Bernard, Vita S. Malachiae, pp 309, 369; Colmcille Ó Conbhuidhe, Cistercian abbeys of Tipperary, ed. Finbarr Donovan (Dublin, 1999), pp 105–06. The abbey was located at Inislounaght in Tipperary, on the north bank of the Suir, but may have moved from an earlier location in Waterford.

⁴⁸ ‘Essai de liste générale des cardinaux. Les cardinaux du XIIè siècle’ in Annuaire Pontifical Catholique 1928 (Paris, 1928), pp 127–8; Barbara Zenker, Die Mitglieder des Kardinalkollegiums von 1130 bis 1159 (Würzburg, 1964), pp 133–4; Ceschi, S. Stefano, p. 129. See also footnote 45 above.

⁴⁹ Bernard, Vita S. Malachiae, pp 343–4. See also Flanagan, ‘St Malachy’, pp 295–6.

⁵⁰ Aubrey Gwynn, ‘Saint Lawrence O'Toole as Legate in Ireland (1179–1180)’ in Analecta Bollandiana, lxviii (1950), p. 226; Aubrey Gwynn and Dermot F. Gleeson, A history of the diocese of Killaloe, Parts I–IV (Tralee, 1962), pp 166–9. Lorcán's royal allegiances are complex and fall within ongoing research stemming from a recent Irish Research Council Project at University College Cork (2021–23), entitled ‘The Life, Career, and Afterlife of St. Lorcán Ua Tuathail’, ‘LCALT’.

⁵¹ E. A. Oftestad, The Lateran church in Rome and the Ark of the Covenant: housing the holy relics of Jerusalem (Martlesham, 2019), pp 1–20.

⁵² Ian Stuart Robinson, ‘Innocent II and the Empire’ in Doran & Smith (eds), Pope Innocent II, p. 54; Dale Kinney, ‘Patronage of art and architecture’ in ibid., pp 355, 384–7.

⁵³ Sible de Blaauw, ‘Private tomb and public altar: the origins of the mausoleum choir in Rome’ in Wessel Reinink and Jeroen Stumpel (eds), Memory & oblivion: Proceedings of the XXIXth International Congress of the History of Art held in Amsterdam, 1–7 September 1996 (Norwell, MA, 1999), pp 476–7; Nicola Camerlenghi, St Paul's Outside the Walls: a Roman basilica, from antiquity to the modern era (Cambridge, 2018), p. 156.

⁵⁴ Kinney, ‘Patronage of art and architecture’, pp 353–61.

⁵⁵ John Doran, ‘Two popes: the city vs. the world’ in Doran & Smith (eds), Pope Innocent II, pp 24–6; Kinney, ‘Patronage of art and architecture’. For an overview of the high liturgy for consecrating churches, see Louis I. Hamilton, A sacred city: consecrating churches and reforming society in eleventh-century Italy (Manchester, 2010).

⁵⁶ The dates of the council fell between 2 and 17 April, while Easter 1139 fell on 23 April: see C. R. Cheney, A handbook of dates for students of British history, ed. Michael Jones (rev. ed., Cambridge, 2000), p. 220.

⁵⁷ See Ó Corráin, Ireland before the Normans, pp 157–8; Máire Ní Mhaonaigh, ‘Ua Briain, Conchobar’ in Dictionary of Irish biography, ix, pp 552–3, at 553; eadem, ‘Ua Briain, Tairdelbach’ in ibid., ix, 561–2.

⁵⁸ See Roger Stalley, ‘Design and function: the construction and decoration of Cormac's Chapel at Cashel’ in Bracken & Ó Riain-Raedel (eds), Ireland and Europe, pp 164–8; Flanagan, ‘High-kings’, p. 920.

⁵⁹ For Cormac's spiritual credentials, see Bernard, Vita S. Malachiae, pp 318–9, 328; Jefferies, ‘Desmond’, p. 88.

⁶⁰ See footnote 57 above.

⁶¹ Brian Patrick McGuire, Bernard of Clairvaux: an inner life (Ithaca, NY, 2020), chapters 6–7.

⁶² Ferguson, Representatives, pp 36–7; Duggan, ‘Sicut ex scriptis vestris accepimus’, pp 72, 85.

⁶³ Ó Corráin, Irish church, pp 79–81.

⁶⁴ In the Irish church, there was an indefinable prestige associated with the office of coarb. As Kenneth W. Nicholls, Gaelic and Gaelicized Ireland in the Middle Ages (Dublin, 2003), pp 127–8 has noted: ‘The coarb was literally the “successor” of a saint, the founder of the church; as representative of the saint he was always to enjoy … a considerable but undefinable spiritual prestige’. The Irish conceived the churches of Rome in similar terms, calling the pope ‘abbot of Rome’ and ‘comarb of Peter’: see Flanagan, ‘Relations’, p. 67; Murphy, ‘The coarb of Peter’.

⁶⁵ In addition, the Third Lateran Council in 1179, which similarly preceded Holy Week and Easter, would have afforded a repeat opportunity for an Ua Briain bishop and three of his Munster colleagues to remind the papacy of those important royal connections at S. Stefano; see footnote 50 above.

⁶⁶ Annals of Clonmacnoise, p. 179; The History of Ireland by Geoffrey Keating, ed. David Comyn and Patrick S. Dinneen (4 vols, London, 1902–14), ii, 292–5, 346–9.

⁶⁷ Breandán Ó Buachalla, The crown of Ireland (Galway, 2006); Casey, ‘A man’, pp 52–5. See also Gwynn, Irish church, pp 86–7; Duffy, ‘Rome’, p. 7.

⁶⁸ John A. Watt, The church and the two nations in medieval Ireland (Cambridge, 1970), pp 42–3; Flanagan, ‘Relations’, pp 63–4; Seán Duffy, Ireland in the Middle Ages (London, 1997), pp 91–3; Nicholas Vincent, ‘Angevin Ireland’ in Brendan Smith (ed.), The Cambridge history of Ireland, volume I: 600–1550 (Cambridge, 2018), pp 194–5.

⁶⁹ Exaggerated reports of the peacock crown may have inspired the elaborate literary description of Pompey's crown in an Irish text of the late twelfth or early thirteenth century, ‘In cath catharda: The civil war of the Romans. An Irish version of Lucan's Pharsalia’, ed. and trans. Whitley Stokes in Ernst Windisch and Whitley Stokes (eds), Irische Texte mit Wörterbuch (4 vols, Leipzig, 1909), iv, pp 350–1.

⁷⁰ Marie Therese Flanagan, Irish society, Anglo-Norman settlers, Angevin kingship: interactions in Ireland in the late twelfth century (Oxford, 1989), p. 202. See also Ó Buachalla, Crown, pp 26, 50.

⁷¹ Donnchadh Ó Corráin, ‘Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil: history or propaganda?’ in Ériu, xxv (1974), p. 69; Jefferies, ‘Desmond’, p. 87.

⁷² See footnote 33 above; Jefferies, ‘Desmond’, p. 90.

⁷³ Jefferies, ‘Desmond’, p. 87.

⁷⁴ For John's biography in the principal lists of cardinals, see Alfonso Chacón, Vitæ, et res gestæ Pontificvm Romanorum et S. R. E. Cardinalivm ab initio nascentis Ecclesiæ vsque ad Vrbanvm VIII. Pont. Max. (2 vols, Rome, 1677), i, col. 1016; Lorenzo Cardella, Memorie storiche de’ cardinali della Santa Romana Chiesa (Rome, 1792), i, pt. 2, pp 44–5; Johannes Matthias Brixius, Die Mitglieder des Kardinalkollegiums von 1130–1181 (Berlin, 1912), p. 100, no. 6; ‘Essai’, p. 134; Zenker, Mitglieder, pp 79–82, 153. For his career and mission, see also Helene Tillmann, Die päpstlichen Legaten in England bis zur Beendigung der Legation Gualas (1218) (Bonn, 1926), p. 52; Wilhelm Janssen, Die päpstlichen Legaten in Frankreich: vom Schisma Anaklets II. bis zum Tode Coelestins III, 1130–1198 (Cologne, 1961), pp 51–3, 55; Ferguson, Representatives, pp 34–5; Aidan Breen, ‘Paparo, Iohannes’, D.I.B., vii, 1052–3; Ó Corráin, Irish church, pp 91–6.

⁷⁵ John of Salisbury, The Historia Pontificalis, ed. and trans. Marjorie Chibnall (Oxford, 1986), p. 71.

⁷⁶ AI 1166.10. For editorial comment, see ibid., ed. Seán Mac Airt (Dublin, 1951), pp xl, 301 n. 6.

⁷⁷ For these cardinals’ backgrounds, see Chacón, Vitæ, i, cols 1046, 1063–4; Cardella, Memorie, i, pt. 2, pp 69–70, 82–5; Brixius, Mitglieder, pp 55–6, nos. 13, 15; ‘Essai’, pp 138, 140–41; Zenker, Mitglieder, pp 73–77, 137–9, 156; A. Ilari, ‘Gaderisi, Giovanni’ in Alberto M. Ghisalberti (ed.), Dizionario biografico degli Italiani (100 vols, Rome 1960–2020), li, 175–8. A fuller exploration of the possible circumstances of the mission will be the object of a future publication.

⁷⁸ In addition, SS. Giovanni e Paolo and S. Stefano were mutually associated by being numbered among the seven titular churches whose cardinal priests served at the patriarchal basilica of S. Lorenzo fuori le mura: see Excerpta ex libro Petri Mallii canonici sancti Petri ad Alexandrum III, ed. J. P. Migne, Patrologia Latina lxxviii (Paris, 1844), p. 1059.

⁷⁹ AI 1166.2, 1166.9; AFM 1167.5.

⁸⁰ Tillmann, Legaten, pp 77, 90; ‘Essai’, pp 146, 156; Elfriede Kartusch, Das Kardinalskollegium in der Zeit von 1181–1227 ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Kardinalates im Mittelalter (Ph.D. Thesis, University of Vienna, 1948), pp 21, 260–65, 422–3; Flanagan, ‘Relations’, pp 59–60, 66–7; Werner Maleczek, Papst und Kardinalskolleg von 1191 bis 1216: die Kardinäle unter Coelestin III. und Innocenz III. (Vienna, 1984), pp 108–09; Marlene Polock, ‘Magister Vivianus. Ein Kardinal Alexanders III.’ in Hubert Mordek (ed.), Papsttum, Kirche und Recht im Mittelalter: Festschrift für Horst Fuhrmann zum 65. Geburtstag (Tübingen, 1991), pp 268–9, 272–3; Ferguson, Representatives, pp 55–7, 65–71.

⁸¹ Tillmann, Legaten, pp 80–81; ‘Essai’, p. 154; Janssen, Legaten, pp 125–8; Kartusch, Kardinalskollegium, pp 293–300; Flanagan, ‘Relations’, pp 64, 66–7.

⁸² Flanagan, ‘Relations’, p. 59.

⁸³ For Gerard d'Autun's biography and inclusion in the lists of cardinals, see François Du Chesne, Histoire de tous les cardinaux françois (2 vols, Paris, 1660), ii, 163–4; Chacón, Vitæ, i, col. 1099; Cardella, Memorie, i, pt. 2, pp 131–2; ‘Essai’, p. 145.

⁸⁴ Flanagan, ‘Relations’, pp 55–6.

⁸⁵ Tillmann, Legaten, p. 79; Gwynn, ‘Lawrence’, 225–6; Flanagan, ‘Relations’, pp 60, 66–7; Ferguson, Representatives, p. 55. Peter's clerical grade has been presumed to have been that of a Roman subdeacon by simple analogy with that of his co-envoy Albert.

⁸⁶ Flanagan, ‘Relations’, pp 61–3, 66–7; Ferguson, Representatives, pp 56–9.

⁸⁷ Roger of Howden, Gesta regis Henrici Secundi Benedicti abbatis, ed. William Stubbs (2 vols, London, 1867), i, 118, 136–7, 161, 166–7; idem, Chronica magistri Rogeri de Houedene, ed. William Stubbs (4 vols, London, 1868–71), ii, 98–9, 119–20, 135, 317; Falkenstein, ‘Ein vergessener Brief Alexanders III’, pp 107–60; Flanagan, ‘Relations’, pp 55–6; Ferguson, Representatives, pp 53 (quoted), 63.

⁸⁸ Flanagan, ‘Relations’, p. 56.

⁸⁹ For a list of the legatine missions to England from 1093–1218, see Tillmann, Legaten, pp 155–6.

⁹⁰ Colin Morris, The papal monarchy: the Western Church from 1050 to 1250 (Oxford, 1989), pp 269–70; Torben Kjersgaard Nielsen, ‘Struggling for ecclesiastical independence in the North’ in Pope Innocent II, pp 205–25. The contest between the archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen and the Scandinavian archdiocese raised at Lund in 1103 for effective metropolitan rights remained to be clarified as late as 1152.

⁹¹ Johannes Bachmann, Die päpstlichen Legaten in Deutschland und Skandinavien, 1125–1159 (Berlin, 1913), pp 34–7 (Martino), 72 n. 2 (Gerardo), 220; ‘Essai’, pp 116 (Sasso), 127–8 (Martino), 133 (Raniero), 135 (Villano), 138 (Gerardo); Zenker, Mitglieder, pp 132–5; Stefan Weiß, Die Urkunden der päpstlichen Legaten von Leo IX. bis Coelestin III. (1049–1198) (Cologne, 1995), pp 91–2 (Sasso). One should perhaps exclude the reported legation in Pisa of Pietro Pisano of S. Stefano in 1118, which followed the unusual circumstances of the flight of Pope Gelasius II from Rome earlier that year; for this, see Weiß, Urkunden, pp 79–81. For the date and circumstances of Martino's legation, see also Nielsen, ‘Struggling for ecclesiastical independence in the North’, pp 213–15.

⁹² Werner Ohnsorge, Päpstliche und gegenpäpstliche Legaten in Deutschland und Skandinavien, 1159–1181 (Berlin, 1929), pp 101–02, 111; Flanagan, ‘Relations’, p. 59; Polock, ‘Vivianus’, pp 268–9, 272–3; Ferguson, Representatives, p. 53.

⁹³ Heinrich Zimmermann, Die päpstliche Legation in der ersten Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts: vom Regierungsantritt Innocenz’ III. bis zum Tode Gregors IX. (1198–1241) (Paderborn, 1913), pp 26, 297; Ina Feinberg Friedlaender, Die päpstlichen Legaten in Deutschland und Italien am Ende des XII. Jahrhunderts (1181–1198) (Berlin, 1928), pp 89–95, 151–2, 157–8; Kartusch, Kardinalskollegium, pp 260–65; Maleczek, Papst und Kardinalskolleg, pp 108–09; Weiß, Urkunden, pp 313–16.

⁹⁴ Ferguson, Representatives, pp 65–6.

⁹⁵ Bernard Hamilton, Latin and Greek monasticism in the crusader states (Cambridge, 2020), pp 18–20.

⁹⁶ For Vivian's earlier mission in Normandy, see Tillmann, Legaten, pp 64–6; Raymonde Foreville, L’Église et la royauté en Angleterre sous Henri II Plantagenet (1154–1189) (Paris, 1943), pp 195–9; Janssen, Legaten, p. 85; Frank Barlow, Thomas Becket (London, 1986), pp 183, 187–93; Polock, ‘Vivianus’, pp 267–8, 272–3; Weiß, Urkunden, pp 247–9; Anne Duggan, Thomas Becket (London, 2004), pp 160–78; Ferguson, Representatives, p. 53. There are also the spurious accounts of Roger of Howden, Gesta regis Henrici, i, 24; idem, Chronica, ii, 28–9, that Vivian and Gratian were sent to Normandy in 1171 to announce the interdict in the wake of Becket's murder, but that they were refused entry to England to see Henry. For the disproof, see Foreville, L’Église, p. 334 n. 1; Anne Duggan, ‘Ne in dubium: the official record of Henry II's reconciliation at Avranches, 21 May 1172’ in English Historical Review, cxv, no. 462 (June 2000), p. 648 n. 1. Additionally, ‘Essai’, p. 146 spuriously places the two envoys as presiding legates at the synod of Cashel in the winter of 1171–72, while Kartusch, Kardinalskollegium, p. 423 cites the sixteenth-century Caesar Baronius in assigning Vivian a similarly doubtful mission to Ireland in 1183. No known medieval source suggests that Vivian or Gratian reached or were sent to Ireland in either year.

⁹⁷ Du Chesne, Histoire de tous les cardinaux françois, ii, 163–4. See also footnote 83 above.

⁹⁸ Aidan Breen, ‘Ua Conairche, Christian (Gilla-Críst)’, D.I.B., ix, 567.

⁹⁹ Clementis III Pontificis Romani: Epistolae et privilegia, ed. J. P. Migne, Patrologia Latina cciv (Paris, 1855), pp 218–19; Breen, ‘Ua Conairche, Christian’. For the identity and timing of Gilla Críst's successor, see Henry Cotton, Fasti Ecclesiae Hibernicae: the succession of the prelates and members of the cathedral bodies in Ireland (5 vols, Dublin, 1846–78), i, 162; Cotton et al., Clergy of Waterford, Lismore, and Ferns, pp 3, 248, 345.

¹⁰⁰ Brixius, Mitglieder, pp 66–7, no. 32; ‘Essai’, p. 146; Polock, ‘Vivianus’, pp 268–9, 273; Ferguson, Representatives, p. 53; see also footnote 92 above. For an estimate of the journey time of a legate from Rome to England to allow for an arrival in July (approximately two months), see Danica Summerlin, The canons of the Third Lateran Council of 1179: their origins and reception (Cambridge, 2019), p. 15.

¹⁰¹ Ferguson, Representatives, p. 52.

¹⁰² Brixius, Mitglieder, pp 66–7, no. 32; ‘Essai’, p. 146.

¹⁰³ Goddard Henry Orpen, Ireland under the Normans (4 vols, Oxford, 1911–20), i, 311; ibid., ii, 25; Watt, Two nations, p. 43; Flanagan, ‘Relations’, p. 59; Ó Corráin, Irish church, p. 115.

¹⁰⁴ Gwynn, ‘Lawrence’, pp 233–4.

¹⁰⁵ Roger of Howden, Chronica, ii, 317. See footnote 81 above.

¹⁰⁶ Flanagan, ‘Relations’, p. 67.

¹⁰⁷ Giraldi Cambrensis opera, ed. J. S. Brewer (8 vols, London, 1861–91), v, 178; with translation in Gerald of Wales, The history and topography of Ireland, trans. John J. O'Meara (Harmondsworth, 1982), p. 115.

¹⁰⁸ Flanagan, ‘Relations’, p. 70 n. 55.

¹⁰⁹ See footnote 107 above.

¹¹⁰ Isidore, Etymologiarum, ed. Lindsay, 7.11.3; translation in The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville, trans. S. A. Barney, W. J. Lewis, J. A. Beach, Oliver Berghof and Muriel Hall (Cambridge, 2006), p. 170.

¹¹¹ See Chacón, Vitæ, i, col. 1116; Cardella, Memorie, i, pt. 2, 142; ‘Essai’, p. 151; Kartusch, Kardinalskollegium, pp 138–42.

¹¹² Chacón, Vitæ, i, col. 1099. Chacón cites Roger of Howden as his authority for the date of Gerard's legation for Ireland, even though neither the sixteenth- nor nineteenth-century printed editions of Roger's chronicles refer to a legate Gerard, referring instead only to the 1176 mission of Vivian and the 1186 mission of Octavian: see Rerum anglicarum scriptores post Bedam praecipui, ex vetustissimis codicibus manuscriptis nunc primum in lucem editi, ed. Henry Savile (London 1596), cols 316A, 361B; Roger of Howden, Gesta regis Henrici, i, 118; idem, Chronica, ii, 98–9, 317.

¹¹³ Chacón, Vitæ, i, col. 1099: ‘E vita discessit non eodem anno, quo renunciatus est Presbyter Cardinalis, ut scripsit Ferd. Vghellius, sed post annum 1176’ (‘He did not die in that year [1175] in which he renounced [the title of] cardinal priest, as Ferdinando Ughelli has written, but after the year 1176’). The citation, which postdates Chacón's death in 1599, is taken from the expanded edition of 1677.

¹¹⁴ Chacón, Vitæ, i, col. 1097; Cardella, Memorie, i, pt. 2, 128, 131–2.

¹¹⁵ Brixius, Mitglieder, pp 66–7, no. 32; ‘Essai’, p. 146; Polock, ‘Vivianus’, p. 269.

¹¹⁶ Flanagan, ‘Relations’, pp 65–6; John Watt, The church in medieval Ireland (rev. ed, Dublin, 1998), pp 94–8; Robin Frame, ‘Contexts, divisions, and unities: perspectives from the later Middle Ages’ in Smith (ed.), Cambridge history of Ireland, volume I, p. 537.

¹¹⁷ Tillmann, Legaten, pp 22–30; Brett, The English church under Henry I (London, 1975), pp 34–50. For the unusualness of John's mission, see Sandy Burton Hicks, ‘The Anglo-Papal bargain of 1125: the legatine mission of John of Crema’ in Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies, viii, no. 4 (1976), pp 301–10; Callum A. Jamieson, ‘The crossing of borders: the legations of John of Crema, 1124–1125’ in Armstrong, et al. (eds), Borders and the Norman world, pp 215–40.

¹¹⁸ Ferguson, Representatives, pp 38–9, 53, 55.

¹¹⁹ Flanagan, ‘Relations’, pp 64, 67.

¹²⁰ Barlow, Becket, p. 112; Duggan, Thomas Becket, pp 73–4.

¹²¹ See footnote 107 above.

¹²² Zimmermann, Legation, pp 43, 45, 87, 201–02, 231–2, 303–04; Tillmann, Legaten, p. 107; Kartusch, Kardinalskollegium, pp 376–81; Maleczek, Papst und Kardinalskolleg, pp 175–9.

¹²³ Earlier versions of this article were delivered at the Norwegian Institute in Rome, 20 September 2022, and at the Papacy and Periphery Conference, held virtually by the universities of St Andrews and Glasgow, 21–23 October 2021. For valuable discussion, the author is grateful to the organisers and attendees of both events, as well as to Daniel Armstrong, Kristin B. Aavitsland, Philip Booth, Damian Bracken, Richard Harrington, Barry Lewis, Mari-Liis Neubauer, Máire Ní Mhaonaigh, Seán Ó Hoireabhárd, Vedran Sulovsky, Clodagh Tait, Colin Veach, Patrick Zutshi and the anonymous reviewers Kristin B. Aavitsland, Damian Bracken, Philip Booth, Clodagh Tait and the anonymous reviewers. For facilitating access to key sources, special thanks go to Philippe Legault at the Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec, Manuela Michelloni and Cathrine Tønseth Sundém at the Norwegian Institute, Michiel Verweij at the Bibliothèque royale de Belgique, the librarians of University College Cork and the University of Cambridge, and Mathew Clear, Amelia Kennedy, Sam Ottewill-Soulsby and Laure Sigalla.