¹ W Hardcastle, “Press Freedom”, The Listener, 7 December 1967 quoted by Williams, D, “Official Secrecy in England” (1968) 3 FL Rev 20, 34Google Scholar.

² Post and Telegraph Act 1901, ss 9 and 127.

³ Senate Standing Committee on Constitutional and Legal Affairs, Report on Aspects of the Freedom of Information Bill 1978 and the Archives Bill 1978 (1979) 233 (hereafter referred to as the Senate Committee Report).

⁴ Ibid 236.

⁵ See Appendix.

⁶ Australian Law Reform Commission Report No 22: Privacy (1983) Vol 1, para 639 (hereafter referred to as the ALRC Report on Privacy); E Campbell and H Whitmore, Freedom in Australia (1973, 347-348; the Senate Committee Report, supra n 6, Appendix 6.

⁷ Report of the Royal Commission on Australian Government Administration (1976) paras 10.7.19-10.7.23, Appendices 2A, 28, 4K, (hereafter referred to as the RCAGA); P Munro and J McMillan, Freedom of Information, the RCAGA Report, Appendix 2A (hereafter referred to as the RCAGA Minority Report); Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security (1977) 4th Report Vol 2 Appendix 4E; Royal Commission on the Activities of the Federated Ship Painters and Dockers Union Interim Reports No 3 (1981) and 4 (1982), Final Report (1984) (hereafter referred to as the Costigan Royal Commission); Office of Special Prosecutor, Annual Report (1982/1983) Chs 10, 11, 12, 15; Special Prosecutor Redlich Annual Report (1983-1984) para 5.67; Senate Committee Report, supra n 3, Ch 21; Senate Standing Committee on Regulations and Ordinances Report disallowed by effluxion of time (1986); Report of the Joint Select Committee on an Australia Card (1986) Ch 2; Report of the Inter Departmental Committee on policy proposals for Freedom of Information legislation (1976) s 12; Human Rights Commission Report: Review of the Crimes Act 1914 and other Crimes legislation of the Commonwealth (1983) 7; AI.RC Report: Privacy, supra n 6, paras 798-803, 937-952; Review of Commonwealth Criminal Law Discussion Paper No 20: Disclosure of official information (1988) (hereafter referred to as the Gibbs Committee Report).

⁸ Official Secrets Act 1989

⁹ Attorney-General's second reading speech on the introduction of the Crimes Bill 1914, H Reps Deb 1914, Vol 75, 265; the first UK Official Secrets Act, enacted in the same year as the Queensland Criminal Code 1889, had been under consideration for many years: see generally Williams, D, Not in the Public Interest (1965) Ch 1Google Scholar; see also Royal Commission Criminal Code Repon, Qld Parl Papers 38-1899.

¹⁰ ALRC Report: Privacy, supra n 6, Vol 2, para 1319.

¹¹ (1984) 52 ALR 728; (see also News Corporation v NCSC (1984) 52 ALR 277.)

¹² R v Clarkson (1982) VR 522, 527; divulging includes incorporating information in a document and supplying it to another person: Canadian Pacific Tobacco Co Ltd v Stapleton (1952) 86 CLR 1, 7; Re Actors Equity and Australian Broadcasting Tribunal (1984) 1 AAR 222, 231.

¹³ Bonner v Karamea Shipping Co [1973] 2 NZLR 375, 379.

¹⁴ Cf R v Homestake [1977] 3 WWR 629, 634.

¹⁵ Crimes Act 1914 s 85; see opinion of Attorney-General Evans 29 August 1983 incorporated in Sen Deb 1983, Vol 101, 3613 (9 December 1983) (hereafter referred to as the Attorney-General's opinion).

¹⁶ See Cortis v R [1979] WAR 30; R v Crisp and Homewood (1919) 83 JP 121, 123;

¹⁷ Attorney-General's opinion, supra n 15, 3615

¹⁸ Attorney-General's second reading speech on introduction of the Crimes Bill 1960, H Reps Deb 1960, Vol 28, 1023 (8 September 1960).

¹⁹ Crimes Act 1960, s 49. For a discussion of the meaning of the word “secret” in s 79(3), see Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security (1977) 4th Repon Vol 2, Appendix 4E.

²⁰ [1979] WAR 30, 32.

²¹ See Commonwealth v John Fairfax & Sons Ltd (1980) 147 CLR 39, 50; Allied Mills Industries Pty Ltd v Trade Practices Commission (1981) 34 ALR 105, ll8; Attorney–General v Jonathon Cape Ltd [1976] 1 QB 752.

²² Public Service Regulations r 35.

²³ Supra n 16, 32; see also Guidelines on official conduct: Commonwealth Public Service Board Personnel Management Manual (1983) Vol 3.

²⁴ Defence Act 1901 s 73A; Supply and Development Act 1939 s 25; Australian Federal Police (Discipline) Regulations r 13.

²⁵ Royal Commission on Australia's Security and Intelligence Agencies, Report on term of reference (c) (1983), 194; Attorney-General's opinion, supra n 15, 3615.

²⁶ Sawer, G, “Cabinet Secrecy - limits of the law” The Canberra Times, 10 August 1983Google Scholar.

²⁷ See Attorney-General's Second reading speech on the introduction of the Crimes Bill 1960, H Reps Deb 1969, Vol 28, 1032 (8 September 1960).

²⁸ (1977) 17 ACJ'R 29, 31; see also R v Doe referred to by Williams, D, Not in the Public Interest (1965) 20Google Scholar.

²⁹ Atomic Energy Act 1953 ss 44, 46, 48; Crimes Act 1914 s 83; Defence Act 1901 s 73A; Defence (Special Undertakings) Act 1952 s 9; Defence Force Discipline Act 1982 s 58.

³⁰ Crimes Act 1964 ss 78, 79(2); Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979 ss 18, 81.

³¹ See generally D Williams, “Official Secrecy and the Courts”, in Glazebrook, P (ed) Reshaping the Criminal Law (1978)Google Scholar; Aitken, J, Officially Secret (1971)Google Scholar {hereafter referred to as Aitken).

³² [1985] Crim LR 104.

³³ R v Parrot (1913) 8 Cr App R 186; R v Sutch [1975] 2 NZLR 1.

³⁴ [1964] AC 763.

³⁵ Gibbs Comminee, supra n 7, Review of Commonwealth Criminal Law - Discussion Paper 17 - Part VII of the Crimes Act, 9.

³⁶ Attorney-General's second reading speech on introduction of Crimes Bill 1960, H Rep Deb 1960, Vol 28 1030 (8 September 1960); D Williams, supra n 28, 27; Coxsedge, J, Caldicun, K, Harant, G: Rooted in Secrecy: The Clandestine Element in Australian Politics (1982) 209-210Google Scholar.

³⁷ Crimes Act ss 78(3), 79(8).

³⁸ Human Rights Commission, Review of the CrirMs Act 1914 and other crirMs legislation of the Commonwealth (1983) 8.

³⁹ [1894) AC 57; see also Markby v R (1978) 140 CLR 108; Perry v R (1982) 150 CLR 580.

⁴⁰ Prohibited place is defined in the Crimes Act 1914 s 80.

⁴¹ See Eagles, I, “Public Interest Immunity and Statutory Privilege” (1983) 42 Camb Ll l 18, 137-139Google Scholar (hereafter referred to as “Eagles”); AG (NT) v Maurice (1986) 65 ALR 230, 245; Hiroa Mariu v Hutt Timber Co [1950) NZLR 458, 460.

⁴² (1952) 86 CLR 1, 5.

⁴³ (1984) 57 ALR 26, 31.

⁴⁴ (1978) 142 CLR 1.

⁴⁵ (1980) 147 CLR 39.

⁴⁶ R v Clarkson (1982) VR 522; Re Actors Equity and Australian Broadcasting Tribunal (1984) 1 AAR 222.

⁴⁷ (1952) AC 571; see also Federal Commissioner of Taxation v Swiss Aluminium (1986) 66 ALR 159, 163; Attorney-General's answer to parliamentary question re disclosure of tax information 1982, Sen Deb 1982, Vol 96, 1534 (14 October 1982).

⁴⁸ Mobil Oil Australia v FCT (1963) 113 Cl..R 475.

⁴⁹ Sections 32, 38 Freedom of Information Act 1982 (Cth) (hereafter referred to as the FOi Act).

⁵⁰ Spong v Spong [1914) VLR 77; Honeychwch v Honeychwch [1943) SASR 31, 31;Coonan v Richards (1947) QWN 19; Nunan v Gerblich (1974) 10 SASR 39; cf Geraghty v Woodforth and Stewart [1957) QWN 41; McLeod v Phillips (1905) 5 SR (NSW) 503; see G Nettheim, Private Information in Public Hands (1979) 10 FL Rev 329, 342 (hereafter referred to as Nettheim}.

⁵¹ Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918 s 323; Referendum (Machinery Provisions) Act 1984 ss 67, 116; Australian Wine and Brandy (Election of Members) Regulations r 30.

⁵² Air Navigation Regulations; Air Navigation Act 1920 s 27A; see also Australian National Airlines Commission v Commonwealth (1975) 132 CLR 589.

⁵³ Census and Statistics Act 1905 s 19.

⁵⁴ Telecommunications (Interception) Act 1979 s 63; Telecommunications Act 1975 s 82; Telecommunications commissions (TP) Act 1975 s 37; Overseas Telecommunications Act 1946 s 33A; Satellite Communications Act 1984 s 16; Customs Act 1901 s 219F; Postal Services Regulations r 47.

⁵⁵ Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry into Alleged Telephone Interceptions (1986) 351, 352; Report of the Joint Select Committee on Telecommunications Interception (1986) (iv); see Elliot, I D, “Controlling the Use of Electronic Surveillance in Law Enforcement” (1982) 6 Crim L J 327Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ (1986) 65 ALR 539, 543.

⁵⁷ Companies Act 1981 s 306; National Health Act 1953 s 73(4); Affirmative Action (Equal Employment Opportunity for Women) Act 1986 s 32; Designs Act 1906 s 40F; Patents Act 1952 s 55.

⁵⁸ Acts Interpretation Act 1901 s 22 (a); Federal Commission of Taxation v Swiss Aluminium Australia (1986) 66 ALR 159, 163; Mobil Oil Australia Ltd v Commissioner of Taxation (1963) 113 CLR 475.

⁵⁹ See Meagher, D, Organised Crime (1983) 90Google Scholar (hereafter referred to as Meagher).

⁶⁰ [1973] 2 All ER 1169, 1179.

⁶¹ Customs Administration Act 1985 s 16; Industry Research and Development Act 1986 s 47; Automotive Industry Authority Act 1984 s 29.

⁶² Trade Practices Act 1974 s 165(3).

⁶³ Fisheries Act 1952 s 17(3).

⁶⁴ Broadcasting Act 1942 s 124(5).

⁶⁵ (1983) 5 ALD 334, 342.

⁶⁶ Re Jamieson and Department of Aviation (1983) 5 ALN 216; see also Eggers & Wilson Construction (Nelson) Ltd (1964) NZLR 901.

⁶⁷ (1986) 66 ALR 159, 163, per Bowen CJ; see also Re Mann and Commissioner of Taxation (1985) 3 AAR 261, 269.

⁶⁸ KG Robenson, Public Secrets (1982) 42

⁶⁹ ALRC Report: Privacy, supra n 6, Vol 1, para 798.

⁷⁰ Jackson v Magrath (1947) 75 CLR 293, 312 per Dixon J.

⁷¹ Income Tax Assessment Act 1936 ss 16(4)-16(6); National Crime Authority (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act 1985.

⁷² Bounty (High Alloy Steel Products) Act 1983 s 18.

⁷³ Aboriginal Development Commission Act 1980, s 40(3) prohibiting inclusion of sacred aboriginal material in an Annual Report. See also Senate Committee Report, supra n 3, 235.

⁷⁴ Crimes Act 1914 s 76B.

⁷⁵ These provisions are listed in the Appendix.

⁷⁶ Sankey v Whitlam (1978) 142 CLR I, 42, 100; Whitlam v Australian Consolidated Press (1985) 60 ACTR 7; lee v Birrell (1813) 170 ER 1402; Cf In re Joseph Hargreaves ltd (1900] 1 Ch 347; Coonan v Richardson (1947) QWN 19.

⁷⁷ Attorney-General v Johnathon Cape ltd (1976) I QB 752, 767; in relation to use of a breach of an oath in disciplinary proceedings see Ontario Law Reform Commission: Report on Political Activity, Public Comment and Disclosure by Crown Employees (1986), 90.

⁷⁸ See Industry Assistance Commission Act 1973 s 40A; Australian Military Regulations r770.

⁷⁹ Barton v Csdei (1979] 1 NSW LR 524; Wran v ABC (1984] 3 NSWLR 241, 260; Norwich Phormacal Co v Commissioners of Customs and Excise (1973] 2 All ER 943, 954, 968; cf In re D (infants) (1970) I All ER 1088, 1089.

⁸⁰ Kavvadias v Commonwealth Ombudsman (1984) 52 ALR 728, 734; Re Actors Equity Association and Australian Broadcasting Tribunal (1984] 1 AAR 222, 234; Re Zand Australian Taxation Office (1984] 2 AAR 190, 193; Re Mann and Australian Taxation Office (1985] 3 AAR 261, 269;

⁸¹ Senate Committee Repon, supra n 3, 234-235; see Bayne, P J, Freedom of Information (1984), 164Google Scholar.

⁸² These provisions are listed as category E in the Appendix.

⁸³ Boucicault v Chatterton (1877) 5 Ch 267, 279; Crowe v Graham (1968) 121 CLR 375,388.

⁸⁴ Re Nolan and Department of Aviation unreponed AAT decision 8 March 1985, 6; see also Humpherson v Syer (1887) 4 RPC 407, 413; cf Ex parte Black Re Morony (No 1) [1965] NSWR 932.

⁸⁵ (1983) 5 ALN 216.

⁸⁶ Racial Discrimination Act 1975 s 27F(l)(c); Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979 s 925.

⁸⁷ Button v Evans (1984) 56 ALR 317.

⁸⁸ Re Actors Equity Association and Australian Broadcasting Tribunal (1984) 1 AAR 222,231.

⁸⁹ Eagles, I, supra n 41, 118Google Scholar.

⁹⁰ See Office of Special Prosecutor Redlich Annual Report (1982-83), 47-48; ALRC Report on Privacy, supra n 6, paras 404-408.

⁹¹ ALRC Report: Privacy, supra n 6, Vol 1, para 947.

⁹² (1952) 86 CLR 1

⁹³ Ibid 6 per Dixon J .

⁹⁴ Mobil Oil Australia Pty Ltd v FCT (1963) 113 CLR 475.

⁹⁵ RCAGA, supra n 7, Volume 4, 356-358; Hallet, Royal Commissions and Boards of Inquiry (1982) 125, 126.

⁹⁶ Attorney-General (Northern Terrilory) v Maurice (1986) 65 ALR 230.

⁹⁷ See “Questions to Commonwealth officers: privilege” opinion by Solicitor-General K H Bailey to Senate Regulations and Ordinances Committee, 14 September 1956, reproduced in Odgers, J R Australian Senate Practice (5th ed 1976) 548-554Google Scholar.

⁹⁸ Senate Committee Report, supra n 3, 236.

⁹⁹ ALRC Report on Privacy, supra n 6, paras 937,951, 1319.

¹⁰⁰ Ibid, paras 947, 1319.

¹⁰¹ Eagles, supra n 41, 131 citing R v Saint Merat (1958] NZLR 1147.

¹⁰² Departmental Committee on s 2 of the Official Secrets Act 1911 (1972) Vol 1, 14-15 (hereafter referred to as the Franks Committee).

¹⁰³ Michael, J, The Politics of Secrecy (1982) 30Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁴ See Royal Commission on Australia's Security and Intelligence Agencies, Report on term of reference (c) (1983), 190-191; Curtis, Freedom of Information Legislation, RCAGA, supra n 7, Vol 2, 168-169.

¹⁰⁵ Guidelines on official conduct, Commonwealth Public Service Board Personnel Manual (1983) Vol 3, para 4.8.

¹⁰⁶ Public Service Regulations r 35.

¹⁰⁷ ALRC Report: Privacy, supra n 6, Vol 1, para 951.

¹⁰⁸ (1947) 75 CLR 293, 312.

¹⁰⁹ Ombudsman Act 1976 s 9(4).

¹¹⁰ Audit Act 1901 s 14C.

¹¹¹ National Crime Authority Act 1984 s 20 and Schedule 1.

¹¹² See Costigan Royal Commission Interim Report No 4 (1982), supra n 7, 95; Meagher,supra n 59, 94-95.

¹¹³ Ombudsman Act 1976 s 35; Merit Protection (Australian Government Employees) Act 1984 s 84; Australian Trade Commission Act 1985 s 94.

¹¹⁴ Ombudsman Act 1976 s 35(3); Complaints (AFP) Act 1981 s 41; Income Tax Assessment Act 1936 s 16(4B)(a)

¹¹⁵ Census and Statistics Act 1901 s 19.

¹¹⁶ Homes Savings Grants Act 1964 s 13(4)(C); Disability Services Act 1986 s 28(5)(c); Student Assistance Act 1973 s 29B{l){a)(iii).

¹¹⁷ Income Tax Assessment Act 1936 s 16(4C); Designs Act 1906 s 40F; see also FCT v Official Receiver (1956) 95 CLR 300, 329.

¹¹⁸ Census and Statistics Act 1905 s 12; Air Navigation Regulations r 107(3); Fisheries Regulations r 19(2).

¹¹⁹ [1952] AC 571.

¹²⁰ Supra n 79, 532; Re Sheepskin and Opal Exporters and Export Development Grants Board (1984) 2 AAR 115.

¹²¹ Rowell v Pratt [1938] AC 101, 104; courts in the United States adopt a similar narrow approach: see “Discovery of Government Documents and the Official Information Privilege” (1976) 76 Colum Law Rev 142.

¹²² (1952) 86 CLR 1.

¹²³ Ibid 6.

¹²⁴ Eagles, I, supra n 41, 121Google Scholar; Nettheim, G, supra n 50, 347-348Google Scholar; see also Auckland Hotel v Pagni (1915) 17 GLR 311.

¹²⁵ See Jacobs Jin Miller v Miller (1978) 141 CLR 269, 279.

¹²⁶ Stapleton v Wilson (1956) QWN 48; GeraghJy v Woodforth and Stewart (1957) QWN 41; Ex parte Black re Monrony (1965) NSWR 932.

¹²⁷ (1985) 157 Cl.R 57; see also supra n 125, 277; Wran v ABC (1984) 3 NSWLR 241.

¹²⁸ (1879] SAI.R 79; see also R v Beynon (1963) NZLR 635: communicating information does not include giving testimony.

¹²⁹ (1988) 83 ALR 466.

¹³⁰ Cf Ship v The King (1949) 95 CCR 143.

¹³¹ (1924) 24 NSWR 474.

¹³² Attorney-General Northern Territory v Maurice (1986) 65 ALR 230, 245.

¹³³ Cowan v Stanhill (1966) VR 604, 609.

¹³⁴ Eg National Health Act 1953, s 135A.

¹³⁵ Supra n 58.

¹³⁶ Ibid 505; see also Nestle Australia Ltd v FCI (1986) 67 ALR 128, 131.

¹³⁷ The differences in scope of these exceptions are discussed in Honeychurch v Honeychurch (1943) SASR 31; Rowell v Pratt [1938) AC 101,106;Eagles, I, supra n 41, 135-146Google Scholar;Nettheim, G, supra n 50,344Google Scholar.

¹³⁸ Re Fortex Pty Ltd (1986) 86 ATC 4351, 4357.

¹³⁹ Nestle Australia Ltd v FCI (1986) 67 ALR 128; Krew v FCI (1971) 45 AUR 249; L'Estrange v FCI (1973) 47 AUR 319; Norper Investments Pty Ltd v DCI (1977) ATC 4211; cf O'Flaherty v McBride (1920) 28 CLR 283; DCT v Glastonbury Steel Fabrications Pty Ltd (1984) 15 ATR 887.

¹⁴⁰ ALRC Report: Privacy, supra n 6, Vol 1, para 388.

¹⁴¹ (1938) AC 101, 106.

¹⁴² (1985) 157 CLR 57.

¹⁴³ Wilcox Jin Duff v McCulloch (1985) 65 ALR 677, 682; cf Barton v Csuki (1979) 1 NSWLR 524; Attorney-General (Northern Territory) v Maurice (1986) 65 ALR 230,245.

¹⁴⁴ Canadian Pacific Tobacco Co v Stapleton (1952) 86 CLR 1, 7 per Dixon CJ; 10 per McTieman J; National Discounts Ltd v Jaques, Re Doyle (1955) 33 CLR 449, 463.

¹⁴⁵ Honeychurch v Honeychurch (1943] SASR 31.

¹⁴⁶ Re Goretslci (1970] Argus LR 805; supra n 79.

¹⁴⁷ Irvin v Whitford (1978] Qd R 137, 140; but cf Nestle Australia Ltd v FCT (1986) 67 ALR 128.

¹⁴⁸ Mobil Oil Australia Pty Ltd v FCT (1963) 113 CLR 475; R v Padman (1979) 25 ALR 36, 40; Rowell v Pratt (1938] AC 101, 114; see also Austin v Tax Agents Board (NSW) (1985) 60 ALR 589.

¹⁴⁹ Re Sheepskin (1984] 2 AAR 115, Brown v Commissioner AFP (1988) 83 ALR 477.

¹⁵⁰ ALRC Report: Privacy, supra n 6, Vol 1, para 389.

¹⁵¹ Honeychurch v Honeychurch [1943] SASR 31, 36; R v Beynon (1963) NZLR 635; Nunan v Gerblich (1974) 10 SASR 39, cf Rowell v Pratt (1938] AC 101, 112; Re Goretzkci (1970] Argus LR 805.

¹⁵² O'Flaherty v McBride (1920) 28 CLR 283, 288.

¹⁵³ Smout v Walker (1967) QWN 13; Oudman v Wa"en (1963) 80 WN (NSW) 546; Re Goretzki [1970] Argus LR 805; Barton v Csidei (1979) 1 NSWLR 524; cf Honeychurch v Honeychurch (1943] SASR 31; Coonan v Richards (1947] QWN 19; Nunan v Gerblich (1974) 10 SASR 39.

¹⁵⁴ (1963) 113 CLR 475, 494, 495, 501.

¹⁵⁵ Supra n 145 per Richards J.

¹⁵⁶ Sankey v Whitlam (1978) 142 CLR 1; Australian National Airlines v Commonwealth (1975) 132 CLR 582, 592.

¹⁵⁷ Eg Federal Provincial Task Force, Report on Uniform Rules of Evidence (Canada 1982) para 34.6 referred to in ALRC Interim Repon No 26: Evidence (1985) Vol l; Human Rights Commission v Attorney-General of Canada (1982) 134 DLR (3d) 17 (see note in (1983) 57 AU 354).

¹⁵⁸ I Eagles, supra n 41, 133, 136, 140-149.

¹⁵⁹ ALRC Repon: Privacy, supra n 6, Vol 1, paras 954-978.

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¹⁶¹ (1975) 132 CLR 582, 591.

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¹⁶³ (1984) 57 ALR 26, 32.

¹⁶⁴ Air Navigation Act 1920 (Cth) s 27A; Agricultural and Veterinary Oiemicals Act 1988 (Cth) s 20(2).

¹⁶⁵ FOI Act 1982 (Cth) s 3.

¹⁶⁶ FOI Act 1982 (Cth) s 23(1).

¹⁶⁷ FOI Act 1982 (Cth) s 92.

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¹⁶⁹ Senate Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, Repon on Operation of FOI Legislation (1987) para 12.31; Government response 1 June 1989, Journals of the Senate No 163 p 1776.

¹⁷⁰ Franks Committee Repon, supra n 102, 42.

¹⁷¹ See generally A May and H Rowan, Inside Information (1982).

¹⁷² Gibbs Committee Report, supra n 7, 53-55; NSW Law Society Journal (September 1989) 61; Australian Accountant (October 89) 38.

¹⁷³ Minority Report Appendix 2A, supra n 7, 54-56, Senate Committee Report, supra n 3,238-243.

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¹⁷⁶ Review of Crimes Act 1914 and other crimes legislation of the Commonwealth (1983) 7.

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¹⁸⁵ Commission of Inquiry concerning certain activities of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, First Report: Security and Information (1979) 25; Report of the Commission on Freedom of Information and Individual Privacy: Public Government for Private People (1980); Ontario Law Reform Commission Report on Political Activity: Public Comment and Disclosure by Crown Employees (1986) 155.

¹⁸⁶ Franks Committee Report, supra n 102, 80; see also ALRC Report Privacy: Summary of the Report (1983) 26.

¹⁸⁷ See debates on the Crimes Bill 1914, supra n 174.

¹⁸⁸ See Attorney-General's opinion, supra n 15, 3616.

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¹⁹¹ See the Attorney-General's opinion, supra n 15, 3616.

¹⁹² Franks Committee Report, supra n 102, 243.

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¹⁹⁵ Grabosky, P and Braithwaite, J, Of Man Mrs Genlle (1986) 36Google Scholar (hereafter Grabosky and Braithwaite).

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¹⁹⁷ Senate Committee Report, supra n 3, 242.

¹⁹⁸ See Minority Report of the RCAGA, supra n 7, 2; Senate Committee Report, supra n 3,238; Costigan Royal Commission Interim Report No 4 (1982) 93.

¹⁹⁹ Supra n 1, 208.

²⁰⁰ PSB Personnel Management Manual, Vol 3 Chs 3 and 4.

²⁰¹ Ontario Law Reform Commission Report: Political Activity, Public Co-nt and Disclosure by Crown Employees (1986) 306-310.

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²⁰⁴ ALRC Report: Privacy, supra n 6, Vol 1, paras 942-945.

²⁰⁵ See Senate Standing Committee on Regulations and Ordinances Eightieth Report (Oct 1986) 33.

²⁰⁶ Franks Committee Report, supra n 102, 27; Minority Report of the RCAGA, supra n 7, 147; Danks Committee Report, supra n 184, 43-44; Attorney-General's opinion, supra n 15, 3616; Secretary of State for HOTM Office v Guardian Newspapers Ltd (1984) 1 Ch 156, 168.

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²¹⁰ Crimes Act 1914 (Cth) s 73; Franks Committee Report, supra n 102, 74-75.

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²¹³ UK White Paper June 1988: Reform of s 2 of the Official Secrets Act 1911.

²¹⁴ Official Secrets Act 1989 (UK).

²¹⁵ Fourth Report, Vol 2, Appendix 4E.

²¹⁶ Atomic Energy Act 1953 (Cth) ss 44, 48, 52, 53, 57.

²¹⁷ Refshauge, R, “Civil Liberties in the Nuclear Society” (1977) 2 Legal Services Bulletin 269Google Scholar.

²¹⁸ RCAGA Minority Report, 147; see also Church of Scientology v Woodward (1982) 43 ALR 587, 615; Royal Commission on Australia's Security Intelligence Agencies, General Report (1984) Ch 4; Danks Committee Report, supra n 184, 27; Crimes Act 1961 s 78A (NZ).

²¹⁹ Franks Committee Report, supra n 102, 21, 37, 41.

²²⁰ Ibid 85.

²²¹ RCAGA Minority Report, supra n 7, 54, 147.

²²² Senate Committee Report, supra n 3, 242.

²²³ Official Secrets Act (UK) 1989 ss 1(3), 2.

²²⁴ Ibid s 1(1).

²²⁵ Crimes Act 1961 (NZ) ss 78, 78A.

²²⁶ Franks Committee Report, supra n 102, 53-63.

²²⁷ RCAGA Report, supra n 7, 54, 148.

²²⁸ Senate Committee Report, supra n 3, 242.

²²⁹ Church of Scientology v Woodward (1982) 43 ALR 587, 603, 614; Alister v R (1983) 50 ALR 41, 64, 78; A v Hayden No 2 (1985) 59 AljR 6.

²³⁰ Official Secrets Act 1989 (UK) ss 1, 2, 3.

²³¹ Crimes Act 1961 (NZ) s 78(4).

²³² Attorney General (UK) v HeiMma1111 Publishers (1988) 62 Al.JR 344.

²³³ AG (UK) v Heinemann (1988) 62 ALJR 344,351; AG v Guardian Newspapers (1988) 3 All ER 545, 646.

²³⁴ Minority Report of the RCAGA, supra n 7, 148; Senate Committee Report, supra n 3, 242; Danks Committee Supplementary Report, supra n 184, 55; Summary Offences Act 1981 (NZ) s 20A; Official Secrets Act 1989 (UK) s 4.

²³⁵ Danks Committee Supplementary Report, supra n 182, 65.

²³⁶ Royal Commission on Standards in Public Life (1976) (UK) Crnnd 6524 Cb 9.

²³⁷ Supra n 7, 149.

²³⁸ Ibid 243.

²³⁹ Parliamentary Paper 353 (1979) (hereafter referred to as the Bowen Committee Report).

²⁴⁰ ALRC Report: Privacy, supra n 6, Vol 1, para 540.

²⁴¹ (1983) 13 ATR 93S.

²⁴² Royal Commission of Inquiry into Alleged Telephone Interceptions (1986); Report of Joint Select Committee on Telecommunications Interception (1986); see also Official Secrets Act 1989 (UK) s 4(3)(a).

²⁴³ Supra n 7, 149-1S0.

²⁴⁵ Supra n 3, 240.

²⁵⁵ See Campbell, E and Whitmore, H, supra n 6, 3S6Google Scholar.

²⁴⁶ Attorney-General's opinion, supra n 15, 361S-3616.

²⁴⁷ UK White Paper, supra n 213, 9; see also Home Office Report on Reform of s 2 of the Official Secrets Act 1911 {UK) Cmnd 7285.

²⁴⁸ Senate Committee Repon, supra n 3, 240.

²⁴⁹ See Spigelman, J, Secrecy: Political Censorship in Australia (1972), 5Google Scholar; cf Griffith, J, Governnumt Secrecy in tM United Kingdom (1983) 342Google Scholar; Meagher, D, supra n 59, 91Google Scholar.

²⁵⁰ Report cf the Review of Systems for dealing with fraud on the Commonwealth (March 1987) para 6.3.11.

²⁵¹ ALRC Report: Privacy, supra n 6, Vol 1, para 153.

²⁵² See generally M Connelly, “Freedom of Information and Commercial Confidentiality” in McCamus, J Freedom of Information: Canadian Perspectives (1981)Google Scholar.

²⁵³ Australian Trade Commission Act 1985 s 94(4)(b).

²⁵⁴ Official Information Amendment Act 1986 (NZ).

²⁵⁵ Re Coclccroft and Attorney-General's Department (Administrative Appeals Tribunal, 21 August 1985, unreported decision); see also Lonhro Ltd v Shell Petroleum Co Ltd (1980) 2 WLR 367, 372; ALRC Privacy Research Paper No 3: Privacy Statistical Records (1978) para 36.

²⁵⁶ Honeychurch v Honeychurch (1943) SASR 31, 37; see also Rowell v Pratt (1983) AC 101, 113; Jackson v Magrath (1947) 75 CLR 293, 309; Foley v Tectran Corporation Pty Ltd (1984) 57 ALR 26.

²⁵⁷ Eagles, I, supra n 41, 148Google Scholar.

²⁵⁸ Supra n 102, 72.

²⁵⁹ ALRC Report: Privacy, supra n 6, Vol 2, para 1319.

²⁶⁰ ALRC Privacy Research Paper No 12: Social Security Records (1981) para 187; No 11: Taxation and Privacy para 68; ALRC Report: Privacy supra n 6, para 407; cf Alfred Crompton Amusement Machines Lid v Cmmr of Customs and Excise (No 2) (1973) 2 All ER 1169.

²⁶¹ ALRC Report Privacy, supra n 6, Vol 1, paras 391, 413; see also D Meagher, supra n 59,90-91.

²⁶² (1983) 13 AlR 935.

²⁶³ Franks Committee Report, supra n 102, 15.

²⁶⁴ See Campbell, E and Whitmore, H, supra n 6, 346Google Scholar; Aitken, J, supra n 31, 23Google Scholar; Michael, J, The Politics of Secrecy (1982) 85Google Scholar.

²⁶⁵ See Aitken, J, supra n 31, 35Google Scholar; Leigh, D, The Frontiers of Secrecy (1980) Ch 2Google Scholar; Wilson, D, The Secrets File (1984)Google Scholar.

²⁶⁶ Report of the Select Committee on lhe Official Secrets Act Cmd (1934) 101; see Campbell, A “Ponting and Privilege” (1985) P L 212Google Scholar; Drewry, G, “The Ponting Case-Leaking in lhe Public Interest” (1985) P L 203Google Scholar.

²⁶⁷ (1980) 147 CLR 39.

²⁶⁸ Taxation Administration Act 1953 (Clh) s 17A.

²⁶⁹ Grant v Headland (1977) 17 ACTR 29; see Attorney-General's second reading speech on introduction of Crimes Bill 1960, H Reps Deb 1960, Vol 28, 1032 (8 September 1960);Williams, supra n 9, 20, 21, 98Google Scholar; Mathews, supra n 211, 109-110Google Scholar; Birtles, W, “Big Brother Knows Best” (1973) P L 100, 102Google Scholar.

²⁷⁰ R v Fell (1965] Crim LR 207 (CCA).

²⁷¹ [1985) Crim LR 318.

²⁷² (1964) AC 763.

²⁷³ Church of Scientology v Woodward (1982) 43 ALR 587, 603, 614; Alister v R (1983) 50 ALR 41, 45, 64, 78; cf Attorney-General (UK) v Heinemann Publishers Australia Pty Ltd (No 2) (1988) 62 AUR 344, 349.

²⁷⁴ Supra n 7, 63-65.

²⁷⁵ See McMillan, J, “Blowing the Whistle on Fraud in Government”, Canberra Bulletin of Public Administration (No 56 September 1988)Google Scholar.

²⁷⁶ ALRC Privacy Research Papers No 1: Commonwealth Employment Service para 43;No 12: Social Security Records paras 168, 169; No 11: Taxation and Privacy (July 1987) para 68; No 10: Education Records (Oct 1980) para 91; ALRC Report: Privacy supra n 6, paras 306, 359, 392, 951.

²⁷⁷ ALRC Privacy Research paper No 12, ibid para 153; No 11, ibid para 68; see also Re Corrs Pavey Whiting and Byrne and Collector of Customs (1986) 11 ALD 312,316.

²⁷⁸ ALRC Report in Privacy,supra n 6, paras 307, 399.

²⁷⁹ ALRC Privacy Research Paper No 10: Education Records para 41.

²⁸⁰ ALRC Privacy Research Paper No 1, supra n 275, para 43; ALRC Repon: Privacy,supra n 6, Vol 1, para 951.

²⁸¹ ALRC Privacy Research Paper No 12, supra n 275, para 173.

²⁸² ALRC Privacy Research Papers No 12, supra n 275, para 184; No 11, supra n 275,para 81; No 10, supra “ 275, para 87.

²⁸³ Repon on scrutiny of certain Health Insurance Regulations disallowed by effluxion of time • Senate Standing Committee on Regulations and Ordinances 79th report (April 1986).

²⁸⁴ Joint Select Committee on Australia Card (1986) 23, 87, 110; ALRC Repon on Privacy, supra n 6, paras 404-408; Costigan Royal Commission Interim Repon No 4 (1982) 22-24; AMual Repon Special Prosecutor Redlich (1984) paras 5.66 to 5.68; Review of systems for dealing with fraud on the Commonwealth (March 1987).

²⁸⁵ ALRC Reports Privacy, supra n 6, paras 52-54.

²⁸⁶ Office of Special Prosecutor Annual Repon 1982-83 p 48, 81, 87; Royal Commission on the Activities of the Federated Ship Painters and Dockers Union (Final Repon), supra n 7, Vol 3, 166, Vol 5, 16, 169-171.

²⁸⁷ Meagher, D, supra n 59, 90Google Scholar.

²⁸⁸ Id.

²⁸⁹ Costigan Royal Commission Interim Report No 3, supra n 7, Ch 1.

²⁹⁰ Meagher, D, supra n 59, 92Google Scholar.

²⁹¹ See second reading speech of Special Minister of State on the introduction of the National Crime Authority (Miscellaneous Amendments) Bill 1985, H Reps Deb 1985, Vol 142, 2452 (9 May 1986); see also ALRC Report:Privacy,supra n 6, para 408.

²⁹² R v Richards [1968] NZLR 950, 954 per Macarthur J.