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The New Right and Aboriginal Rights in the High Court of Australia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2025

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Harry Hobbs*
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Faculty of Law, University of Technology Sydney
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Abstract

In resolving disputes, the High Court of Australia sometimes has cause to expound upon the relationship between the Australian State and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. This article examines overblown and disingenuous New Right criticism directed towards the High Court in the aftermath of judgments deemed favourable to Indigenous Australians. It finds two themes recur in these attacks: that the High Court’s decision is undemocratic, or that the High Court has acted illegitimately. This article demonstrates that such claims are legally baseless. Drawing on quotes from major players in this debate, the article argues further that beneath this criticism lies a deeper angst over the sovereign foundations of Australia; an anxiety that reappears in arguments against contemporary calls for constitutional reform. As Australia nonetheless inches closer towards constitutional recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, the ferocity of New Right censure suggests that the movement may fear the Australian people do not share their same suspicions.

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Articles
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 51 , Issue 1 , March 2023 , pp. 129 - 154
Copyright
Copyright © 2023 The Author(s)

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Footnotes

Thanks to Lynsey Blayden and Stephen Young for reading and providing detailed comments on an earlier draft. Thanks also to Karen Lee, Joellen Riley Munton and colleagues at the UTS Faculty of Law for questions and suggestions at an Internal Research Seminar. One final thanks to the anonymous reviewers and student editors for generous engagement with the manuscript.

References

1. James Woodford, ‘Borbidge Steps Up Attack on High Court’, Sydney Morning Herald (1 March 1997) 7; Innes Willox, ‘Deputy PM Maintains Court Attack’, The Age (28 April 1997) 4; Matt Coughlan, ‘Dutton Furious with High Court Decision’, Canberra Times (online, 20 February 2020) <https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6640195/dutton-furious-with-high-court-decision/>. For a longer history of the charge of ‘judicial activism’, see Tanya Josev, The Campaign Against the Courts: A History of the Judicial Activism Debate (Federation Press, 2017).

2. John Stone, ‘Fifty Years of Unremitting Failure: Aboriginal Policy since the 1967 Referendum’ (November 2017) Quadrant 64; James Woodford, ‘Fischer Lashes High Court on Wik’, Sydney Morning Herald (11 January 1997) 1.

3. Morgan Begg, ‘Left’s Control of Higher Courts Under Threat’, The Australian (10 March 2020); Morgan Begg, ‘Activist Judges Misrepresent Mabo to Create Privileged Class’, The Australian (13 February 2020).

4. Roderick Meagher, ‘Address Launching Upholding the Australian Constitution, Volume 1’ in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Inaugural Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (1994) Appendix 1.

5. Woodford (n 1).

6. Ben Mitchell, Paul Chamberlin and Greg Roberts, ‘Taxpayers Must Fund Wik: Nats’, The Age (8 February 1997) 7; Morgan Begg, ‘Courting Calamity’, (Winter, 2020) IPA Review <https://ipa.org.au/ipa-review-articles/courting-calamity>.

7. Chris Merritt, ‘Judging the Justices’, The Australian (19 February 2020) 11.

8. Nikki Savva, ‘Fischer Seeks A More Conservative Court’, The Age (5 March 1997) 6; Amanda Stoker, ‘All’s Fair in Love and War: The High Court’s Decision in Love & Thoms’ (Samuel Griffith Society, Online Speaker Series, 2020); James Allan, ‘High Court of Wokeness’, The Spectator Australia (21 February 2020) <https://www.spectator.com.au/2020/02/high-court-of-wokeness/>.

9. Richard Court, ‘Referendum on Mabo Decision Sought’ (Media Statement, 10 July 1993). Peter Reith, a Liberal MP in the Commonwealth Parliament publicly supported Court’s proposal: Tim Rowse, ‘How We Got a Native Title Act’ (1993) 65(4) The Australian Quarterly 110, 122; Stoker, ‘All’s Fair in Love and War’ (n 8) 9; Maurice Newman, ‘Masks Slip to Reveal the Ugly Face of the Future’, The Australian (21 June 2017) 14.

10. Murray Goot, ‘The Wild West? Yes, No and Maybe’ (1993) 65(4) The Australian Quarterly 194, 194; Mark Coultan and Mike Seccombe, ‘Fischer’s Mabo Outburst’, The Sydney Morning Herald (1 June 1993) 1.

11. SEK Hulme, ‘The Wik Judgment’ (1997) 8 Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Eighth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society 130, 141. See further SEK Hulme, ‘The Racial Discrimination Act 1975’ (1997) 9 Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Ninth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society 17, 17.

12. Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 11 April 1986, 2128 (Allan Rocher).

13. (1992) 175 CLR 1 (‘Mabo (No 2)’).

14. (1996) 187 CLR 1 (‘Wik’).

15. (2020) 94 ALJR 198 (‘Love’).

16. See generally Jerome Himmelstein, To the Right: The Transformation of American Conservativism (University of California Press, 1990); Joseph Lowndes, From the New Deal to the New Right (Yale University Press, 2008).

17. Bruce Schulman, ‘Comment: The Empire Strikes Back — Conservative Responses to Progressive Social Movements in the 1970s’ (2008) 43(4) Journal of Contemporary History 695, 699.

18. Dominic Kelly, Political Troglodytes and Economic Lunatics: The Hard Right in Australia (La Trobe University Press, 2018) ch 1.

19. Indeed, as Elizabeth Humphrys demonstrates, in Australia the labour movement and the Australian Labor Party were central actors in the deregulation of the labour market: Elizabeth Humphrys, How Labour Built Neoliberalism: Australia’s Accord, the Labour Movement and the Neoliberal Project (Haymarket, 2019).

20. Mark Davis and Nick Sharman, ‘“Strange Times”: Anti-Elite Discourse, the Bicentenary, and the IPA Review’ (2015) 48(2) Communication, Politics and Culture 78, 78–81.

21. Josev (n 1) 127.

22. Kelly (n 18) 16; Judith Brett, Australian Liberals and the Moral Middle Class: From Alfred Deakin to John Howard (Cambridge University Press, 2003); John Howard, ‘Address at the Launch of the Publication “The Conservative”’ (Parliament House, Canberra, 8 September 2005) <https://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/release/transcript-21912 >.

23. See, eg, Greg Craven, ‘The Con-Cons’ Constitutional Conundrum’, The Australian (19 February 2014) 12.

24. Shireen Morris, ‘Undemocratic, Uncertain and Politically Unviable? An Analysis of and Response to Objections to a Proposed Racial Non-Discrimination Clause as Part of Constitutional Reforms for Indigenous Recognition’ (2014) 40(2) Monash University Law Review 488, 495.

25. Jeremy Patrick, ‘A Survey of Arguments against the Constitutional Recognition of Indigenous Australian Peoples’ in Simon Young, Jennifer Nielsen and Jeremy Patrick (eds), Constitutional Recognition of First Peoples in Australia: Theories and Comparative Perspectives (Federation Press, 2016) 143.

26. Patrick Macklem, ‘Indigenous Recognition in International Law: Theoretical Observations’ (2008) 30(1) Michigan Journal of International Law 177, 179.

27. Mick Dodson, ‘Sovereignty’ (2002) 4 Balayi: Law, Culture and Colonialism 13, 18.

28. Love (n 15) 223 [102] (Gageler J); Harry Hobbs and George Williams, ‘The Noongar Settlement: Australia’s First Treaty’ (2018) 40(1) Sydney Law Review 1, 22–4.

29. (1889) 14 App Cas 286, 292. For discussion see Eddie Synot and Roshan de Silva-Wijeyeratne, ‘Cooper v Stuart (1889) 14 App Cas 286’ in Nicole Watson and Heather Douglas (eds), Indigenous Legal Judgments: Bringing Indigenous Voices into Judicial Decision-Making (Routledge, 2021).

30. (1971) 17 FLR 141.

31. Ibid 267.

32. Ibid 245.

33. See Harry Hobbs, ‘Locating the Logic of Transitional Justice in Liberal Democracies: Native Title in Australia’ (2016) 39(2) UNSW Law Journal 512, 535–6.

34. Aboriginal Lands Trust Act 1966 (SA); Aboriginal Lands Act 1970 (Vic); Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976 (Cth); Aṉangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Land Rights Act 1981 (SA); Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1983 (NSW); Maralinga Tjarutja Land Rights Act 1984 (SA); Aboriginal Land Act 1991 (Qld); Torres Strait Islander Land Act 1991 (Qld).

35. Maureen Tehan, ‘A Hope Disillusioned, an Opportunity Lost? Reflections on Common Law Native Title and Ten Years of the Native Title Act’ (2003) 27(2) Melbourne University Law Review 523, 530.

36. See generally Quentin Beresford, Rob Riley: An Aboriginal Leader’s Quest for Justice (Aboriginal Studies Press, 2006) 166–196.

37. Mabo (No 2) (n 13) 76 (Brennan J, Mason CJ and McHugh J agreeing at 15), 119 (Deane and Gaudron JJ), 216 (Toohey J).

38. Fejo v Northern Territory (1998) 195 CLR 96, 128 [46] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Hayne and Callinan JJ).

39. Simeon Beckett, ‘The Impact of Wik on Pastoralists and Miners’ (1997) 20(2) UNSW Law Journal 502, 502.

40. Wik (n 14) 132–3 (Toohey J); 155, 167 (Gaudron J); 168 (Gummow J); 238 (Kirby J).

41. Asa Wahlquist, ‘Cultivating Fear’, The Weekend Australian (25 October 1997) 23.

42. Ravi de Costa, ‘Reconciliation as Abdication’ (2002) 37(4) Australian Journal of Social Issues 397, 399; Jillian Kramer, ‘(Re)mapping Terra Nullius: Hindmarsh, Wik and Native Title Legislation in Australia’ (2016) 29 International Journal for the Semiotics of Law 191, 192.

43. Interview with Prime Minister John Howard (Kerry O’Brien, 7:30 Report, 1 December 1997) <https://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/release/transcript-10554>; Victoria, Parliamentary Debates, Legislative Assembly, 20 July 1993, 3 (Jeff Kennett, Premier).

44. Tehan (n 35); Philip Hunter, ‘Judicial Activism? The High Court and the Wik Decision’ (1997) 4(2) Indigenous Law Bulletin 6.

45. Janine Macdonald, ‘In a Blink, Bill is Passed’, The Age (4 July 1998) 36.

46. Interview with Deputy Prime Minister Tim Fischer (John Highfield, ABC Radio National, 4 September 1997); Native Title Amendment Act 1998 (Cth).

47. Cheryl Saunders, ‘The Constitutional Status of Indigenous Australians’, Verfassungsblog (Blog post, 28 February 2020) <https://verfassungsblog.de/the-constitutional-status-of-indigenous-australians/>.

48. Facts drawn from Daniel Love and Brendan Thoms, ‘Special Case Submission of the Plaintiffs’, Submission in Love v Commonwealth; Thoms v Commonwealth, B43/2018, 2 April 2019, 2–3 [9]–[15].

49. See Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea 1975, s 66(1).

50. Kearns v Queensland [2013] FCA 651; Foster v Queensland [2014] FCA 1318.

51. Love (n 15) 218 [81] (Bell J).

52. Pochi v Macphee (1982) 151 CLR 101, 109 (Gibbs CJ), cited in Love (n 15) 212 [50] (Bell J), 243 [236] (Nettle J), 260–1 [310]–[311] (Gordon J), 273–4 [395] (Edelman J).

53. Love (n 15) 217 [74] (Bell J), 256 [284] (Nettle J), 258 [296] (Gordon J), 274 [398] (Edelman J).

54. Ibid 253 [272], 255 [279] (Nettle J).

55. Ibid 257 [287]–[288] (Nettle J).

56. Ibid 209 [24] (Kiefel CJ), 229 [141] (Gageler J), 236 [187] (Keane J), 257 [287] (Nettle J).

57. See, eg, Helmbright v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs (No 2) [2021] FCA 647.

58. Coughlan (n 1).

59. Elias Visontay, ‘Peter Dutton says High Court Indigenous “Status” Call May Face Legislation Fight’, The Australian (13 February 2020).

60. Montgomery v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs (High Court of Australia, S173/2021, commenced 29 November 2021).

61. Ibid. The case was discontinued 28 July 2022.

62. James Allan, ‘Love Labor’s Voice’, The Spectator Australia (Web Page, 6 August 2022) <https://www.spectator.com.au/2022/08/love-labors-voice/>. See also Amanda Stoker, ‘Ditched High Court Appeal Against Indigenous Deportation Laws Sets a Dangerous Precedent for Foreign Criminals’, Sky News (Web Page, 1 August 2022) <https://www.skynews.com.au/opinion/ditched-high-court-appeal-against-indigenous-deportation-laws-sets-a-dangerous-precedent-for-foreign-criminals/news-story/a2dfc1e8218b0b1128419a8af48bb8c0>.

63. Bain Attwood, ‘Mabo, Australia and the End of History’ in Bain Attwood (ed), In the Age of Mabo: History, Aborigines and Australia (Allen & Unwin, 1996) 100.

64. Kim Rubenstein, ‘Citizenship and the Centenary — Inclusion and Exclusion in 20th Century Australia’ (2000) 24(3) Melbourne University Law Review 576, 580.

65. Andrew Markus, ‘Between Mabo and a Hard Place: Race and the Contradictions of Conservativism’ in Bain Attwood (ed), In the Age of Mabo: History, Aborigines and Australia (Allen & Unwin, 1996) 88, 89–92.

66. Patrick Emerton, ‘Ideas’ in Cheryl Saunders and Adrienne Stone (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Australian Constitution (Oxford University Press, 2018) 143, 156.

67. Harry Hobbs, Indigenous Aspirations and Structural Reform in Australia (Hart Publishing, 2021) Ch 2.

68. Kelly (n 18) 144.

69. The Samuel Griffith Society, ‘About Us’, The Samuel Griffith Society (Web Page) <https://www.samuelgriffith.org/>. On the links between the Samuel Griffith Society and the New Right in Australia see Kelly (n 18) Ch 4.

70. John Stone, ‘Strains of the Third World’, Australian Financial Review (Web Page, 5 August 1993) <https://www.afr.com/politics/strains-of-the-third-world-19930805-k5kjk>.

71. Bill Hassell, ‘Mabo and Federalism: The Prospect of an Indigenous Peoples’ Treaty’ (1993) 2 Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Second Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society 34, 36.

72. John Forbes, ‘Amending the Native Title Act’ (1997) 8 Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Eighth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society 104, 105.

73. Colin Howard, ‘The People of No Race’ in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Tenth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Brisbane, 7–9 August 1998) 88, 92.

74. Hulme, ‘The Racial Discrimination Act 1975’ (n 11) 22.

75. Ibid 25–6.

76. John Forbes, ‘The Prime Minister’s Ten Point Plan’ in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Ninth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Perth, 24–26 October 1997) 30, 30.

77. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Summary Record of the 1287 th Meeting, UN Doc CERD/C/SR.1287 (14 August 1998) 7 [32]; Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Decision 1 (53) concerning Australia, UN Doc CERD/C/53/Misc.17/Rev.2 (14 August 1998).

78. Ravi de Costa, A Higher Authority: Indigenous Transnationalism and Australia (UNSW Press, 2006) 160.

79. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Decision 2 (54) concerning Australia, UN Doc CERD/C/54/Misc.40/Rev.2 (18 March 1999) [6].

80. LJM Cooray, ‘The High Court in Mabo: Legalist or L’égotiste’ in Murray Goot and Tim Rowse (eds), Make a Better Offer: The Politics of Mabo (Pluto Press, 1994) 82, 95.

81. Ibid 93.

82. ‘Angry Borbidge Warns PM of Lawyers’ Banquet’, The Courier Mail (23 April 1997) 4.

83. Caroline Di Russo, ‘Love and Thoms: This Isn’t Closing the Gap, But Entrenching Our Differences’, The Spectator Australia (Web Page, 14 February 2020) <https://www.spectator.com.au/2020/02/love-and-thoms-this-isnt-closing-the-gap-but-entrenching-our-differences/>.

84. Begg (n 3).

85. Jack Weatherall, ‘How the High Court has Endorsed Identity Politics in Love and Thomas’ [sic], The Spectator Australia (Web Page, 12 February 2020) <https://www.spectator.com.au/2020/02/how-the-high-court-has-endorsed-identity-politics-in-love-and-thomas/>.

86. Stoker, ‘All’s Fair in Love and War’ (n 8) 8.

87. Paul Karp and Calla Wahlquist, ‘Coalition Seeks to Sidestep High Court Ruling the Aboriginal Non-Citizens Can’t be Deported’, Guardian Australia (Web Page, 12 February 2020) <https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/feb/12/coalition-seeks-to-sidestep-high-court-ruling-that-aboriginal-non-citizens-cant-be-deported>. See also James Paterson, ‘The High Court Love Decision’ (Samuel Griffith Society, Online Speaker Series, 2020).

88. Kirsty Gover, ‘From the Heart: The Indigenous Challenge to Australian Public Law’ in Jason Varuhas and Shona Wilson Stark (eds), The Frontiers of Public Law (Hart, 2020) 205, 219–20. See also Eddie Synot, ‘The Rightful Place of First Nations: Love & Thoms’, AusPubLaw (Web Page, 6 March 2020) <https://auspublaw.org/2020/03/the-rightful-place-of-first-nations-love-thoms/>.

89. Love (n 15) 270 [370] (Gordon J), discussing Murray Gleeson, ‘Recognition in Keeping with the Constitution’ (2019) 93(11) Australian Law Journal 929.

90. Gerhardy v Brown (1985) 159 CLR 70, 118 (Brennan J). See also 84 (Gibbs CJ), 100–3 (Mason J), 107 (Murphy J), 145 (Deane J), 161 (Dawson J). Note that the Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) is also supported by the race power: Western Australia v Commonwealth (‘Native Title Act Case’) (1995) 183 CLR 373.

91. Love (n 15) 257 [289] (Gordon J). See also Shireen Morris, ‘Love in the High Court: Implications for Indigenous Constitutional Recognition’ (2021) 49(3) Federal Law Review 410, 418–24.

92. Love (n 15) 271 [373] (Gordon J).

93. Ibid 288 [451] (Edelman J).

94. Kirsty Gover, ‘Indigenous-State Relationships and the Paradoxical Effects of Antidiscrimination Law: Lessons from the Australian High Court in Maloney v The Queen’ in Jennifer Hendry et al. (eds), Indigenous Justice: New Tools, Approaches, and Spaces (Palgrave, 2018) 27.

95. Love (n 15) 288 [453] (Edelman J).

96. For a comprehensive overview (and refutation) of good faith criticism along these lines in the context of Indigenous constitutional recognition see Morris, ‘Undemocratic, Uncertain and Politically Unviable?’ (n 24).

97. Michael Kirby, ‘Judicial Activism: Power without Responsibility? No, Appropriate Activism Conforming to Duty’ (2006) 30(2) Melbourne University Review 576, 578.

98. Josev (n 1) 195.

99. Peter Connolly, ‘Should Courts Determine Social Policy?’ in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Second Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Melbourne, 30 July–1 August 1993) 47, 50.

100. Cooray (n 80) 83.

101. Forbes, ‘Amending the Native Title Act’ (n 72) 104.

102. Ibid 116.

103. See Jeremy Waldron, ‘Stare Decisis and the Rule of Law: A Layered Approach’ (2012) 111(1) Michigan Law Review 1; Daniel Farber, ‘The Rule of Law and the Law of Precedents’ (2006) 90 Minnesota Law Review 1173.

104. Commonwealth v Hospital Contribution Fund of Australia (1982) 150 CLR 49, 56–8 (Gibbs CJ); John v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1989) 166 CLR 417, 438.

105. Wurridjal v Commonwealth (2009) 237 CLR 309, 352 (French CJ).

106. Imbree v McNeilly (2008) 236 CLR 510, 526.

107. Mabo (No 2) (n 13) 41–2.

108. Connolly, ‘Should Courts Determine Social Policy?’ (n 99) 50.

109. Ray Evans, ‘Reflections on the Aboriginal Crisis’ in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Seventh Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Adelaide, 7–9 June 1996) 95, 98.

110. Padraic McGuinness, ‘High Court’s Coup d’etat’, The Australian (2 September 1992) 11.

111. Cooray (n 80) 88–9.

112. Ibid 95.

113. Ibid 83. See also Peter Connolly, ‘Right According to Law’ in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Inaugural Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Melbourne, 24–26 July 1992) 11, 13.

114. Mabo (No 2) (n 13) 42.

115. Robert French, ‘Judicial Activists — Mythical Monsters?’ (2008) 12 Southern Cross University Law Review 59, 73.

116. Markus (n 65) 91. See also Greg Craven, ‘Reflection on Judicial Activism: More Sorrow than in Anger’ (1997) 9 Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Ninth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society 103, 111.

117. Brian Galligan, Politics of the High Court: A Study of the Judicial Branch of the Government of Australia (University of Queensland Press, 1987) 256–8.

118. Michael Coper, ‘Concern About Judicial Method’ (2006) 30 Melbourne University Law Review 554, 563–4.

119. Hugh Morgan, ‘The Australian Constitution: A Living Document’ in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Inaugural Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Melbourne, 24–6 July 1992) 17, 24.

120. Richard Evans, ‘The Blainey View: Geoffrey Blainey Ponders Mabo, the High Court and Democracy’ (1995) 96 Law Institute Journal 203, 203.

121. See, eg, Johnny Sakr and Augusto Zimmermann, ‘Judicial Activism and Constitutional (Mis)Interpretation: A Critical Appraisal’ (2021) 40(1) University of Queensland Law Journal 119, 137–9.

122. Merritt (n 7).

123. Gideon Rozner in Chris Berg and Scott Hargreaves, Looking Forward Episode 50: The High Court and Third Class Australians (Institute for Public Affairs, 12 February 2020) <https://ipa.org.au/ipa-tv/the-looking-forward-podcast/looking-forward-episode-50-the-high-court-and-third-class-australians>.

124. James Allan, ‘“Otherness” and Identity Politics in Constitutional Law’, International Association of Constitutional Law (Blog Post, 21 January 2021) <https://blog-iacl-aidc.org/cili/2021/1/26/otherness-and-identity-politics-in-constitutional-law>. See also James Allan, ‘Zoom Discussion with Professor James Allan’, Samuel Griffith Society (Video, 14 May 2020) <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sl6AsFH2WQ8>.

125. Allan, ‘“Otherness” and Identity Politics in Constitutional Law’ (n 124). A charge that Allan has made before: see, eg, James Allan, ‘The Three “Rs” of Recent Australian Judicial Activism: Roach, Rowe and (No)’Riginalism’ (2012) 36(2) Melbourne University Law Review 743.

126. Allan, ‘“Otherness” and Identity Politics in Constitutional Law’ (n 124).

127. Ibid.

128. International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid (opened for signature 30 November 1973) 1015 UNTS 243 (entered into force 18 July 1976).

129. Josev (n 1). See further Kelly (n 18) Ch 4.

130. Geoffrey Blainey, ‘Drawing Up A Balance Sheet Of Our History’, Quadrant (July 1993) 10.

131. John Howard, Future Directions (Liberal Party of Australia, December 1988) 7.

132. Ibid.

133. Stuart Macintyre and Anna Clark, The History Wars (Melbourne University Press, 2004); Mark McKenna, ‘Different Perspectives on Black Armband History’ (Parliament of Australia, Information and Research Services, Research Paper No 5, 10 November 1997) 3–7.

134. WEH Stanner, The Dreaming and Other Essays (Black Inc, 2009) 138, 156.

135. Robyn Moore, ‘Who is Australian? National Belonging and Exclusion in Australian History Textbooks’ (2021) 9(1) Review of Education 55.

136. Henry Reynolds, The Breaking of the Great Australian Silence: Aborigines in Australian Historiography 1955–1983 (Institute of Commonwealth Studies, 1984) 19.

137. Geoffrey Partington, ‘The Aetiology of Mabo’ in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Fourth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Brisbane, 29–31 July 1994) 19.

138. Ibid 29.

139. Attwood, ‘Mabo, Australia and the End of History’ (n 63) 104.

140. Geoffrey Partington, ‘Henry Reynolds and the Mabo Judgment’ (1996) 30 Australia & World Affairs 23.

141. Bain Attwood, ‘The Law of the Land or the Law of the Land? History, Law and Narrative in a Settler Society’ (2004) 2 History Compass 1, 2.

142. Ibid, citing Andrew Sharp, ‘History and Sovereignty: A Case of Juridical History in New Zealand/Aotearoa’ in Michael Peters (ed), Cultural Politics and the University in Aotearoa/New Zealand (Dunmore Press, 1997) 160.

143. Andrew Fitzmaurice, ‘The Genealogy of Terra Nullius’ (2007) 38 Australian Historical Studies 1.

144. David Ritter, ‘The “Rejection of Terra Nullius” in Mabo: A Critical Analysis’ (1996) 18 Sydney Law Review 5.

145. Ibid 33; Bain Attwood, ‘Unsettling Pasts: Reconciliation and History in Settler Australia’ (2005) 8 Postcolonial Studies 243, 250.

146. See generally Anne Carter, ‘The Definition and Discovery of Facts in Native Title: The Historian’s Contribution’ (2008) 36 Federal Law Review 299.

147. Alessandro Portelli, ‘Oral Testimony, the Law and the Making of History: The “April 7” Murder Trial’ (1985) 20 History Workshop Journal 5, 31.

148. Ibid.

149. Ibid. See further Helen Irving, ‘Constitutional Interpretation, the High Court, and the Discipline of History’ (2013) 41 Federal Law Review 95, 102.

150. Bain Attwood and Tom Griffiths, ‘Frontier, Race, Nation’ in Bain Attwood and Tom Griffiths (eds), Frontier, Race, Nation: Henry Reynolds and Australian History (Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2009) 1, 29.

151. Geoffrey Blainey, ‘Land Rights for All’, The Age (10 November 1993). See also Geoffrey Partington, ‘Thoughts on Terra Nullius’ in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Nineteenth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Melbourne, 2007) 96.

152. Padraic McGuiness, ‘High Court’s Role Now Irrevocably Politicised’, The Weekend Australian (13–14 November 1993) 2.

153. Colin Howard, ‘The People of No Race’, in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Tenth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Brisbane, 7–9 August 1998) 88, 92.

154. Michael Connor, The Invention of Terra Nullius: Historical and Legal Fictions on the Foundation of Australia (Macleay Press, 2005).

155. Hugh Morgan, ‘A Day to Remember’ (Address to the Victorian Returned Services League, 30 June 1993). Cited in Attwood, ‘Mabo, Australia and the End of History’ (n 63) 104.

156. Geoffrey Blainey, ‘Black Future’, The Bulletin (8 April 1997) 22.

157. See, eg, Keith Windschuttle, ‘The Fabrication of Aboriginal History’ (2003) The Sydney Papers 21, 22; Keith Windschuttle, The Fabrication of Aboriginal History: Volume One: Van Diemen’s Land 1803–1847 (Macleay Press, 2004).

158. Robert Manne, ‘Keith Windschuttle’, The Monthly (February 2010) 8, 10.

159. James Boyce, ‘Fantasy Island’ in Robert Manne (ed), Whitewash: On Keith Windschuttle’s Fabrication of Aboriginal History (Black Inc, 2003) 17, 17–18.

160. Stoker, ‘All’s Fair in Love and War’ (n 8) 6.

161. Ibid.

162. See, eg, Frank Chung, ‘High Court Ruling on Indigenous Deportation “Will Lead to Racial Division and Strife”’, News.com.au (Web Page, 12 February 2020) <https://www.news.com.au/national/courts-law/high-court-ruling-on-indigenous-deportation-will-lead-to-racial-division-and-strife/news-story/4e03589cbdbfef9f455a753b44b2d725>.

163. Di Russo (n 83).

164. Sakr and Zimmerman (n 121) 138.

165. Robert French, ‘Aboriginal Identity — the Legal Dimension’ (2011) 15(1) Australian Indigenous Law Review 18, 19; Shaw v Wolf (1998) 83 FCR 113, 137.

166. See Morgan (n 119) 24.

167. Mabo (No 2) (n 13) 120 (Deane and Gaudron JJ).

168. Similar criticism has been levelled at the majority judgments in Love; Thoms (n 15): see John P. Bryson, ‘Citizens, Aliens, Race and the High Court’ (April 2020) Quadrant 52.

169. Mabo (No 2) (n 13) 29 (Brennan J), 90 (Deane and Gaudron JJ).

170. Ibid 40 (Brennan J), 182 (Toohey J).

171. Ibid 109 (Deane and Gaudron JJ).

172. Ibid 104 (Deane and Gaudron JJ).

173. Jeremy Webber, ‘The Jurisprudence of Regret: The Search for Standards of Justice in Mabo’ (1995) 17(1) Sydney Law Review 5, 10.

174. Ibid 6, 27–8.

175. Stone, ‘Strains of the Third World’ (n 70).

176. Colin Howard, ‘The People of No Race’ in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Tenth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Brisbane, 7–9 August 1998) 88, 92.

177. SEK Hulme. ‘The High Court in Mabo’ in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Second Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Melbourne, 30 July — 1 August 1993) 60, 76.

178. Geoffrey Blainey, ‘Drawing Up a Balance Sheet of Our History’ (1993) Quadrant 37; Hulme (n 177) 76.

179. Forbes (n 76) 30.

180. Connolly, ‘Should Courts Determine Social Policy?’ (n 99) 51.

181. Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized, tr Howard Greenfeld (Orion Press, 1965) 52 [trans of Portrait du Colonisé Précédé du Portrait du Colonisateur (Buchet-Chastel, 1957)].

182. Coultan and Seccombe (n 10).

183. Harry Gibbs, ‘Re-writing the Constitution’ in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Inaugural Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Melbourne, 24–26 July 1992) 5, 6.

184. Colin Howard, ‘The Consequences of the Mabo Case’ (1993) 46(1) IPA Review 21, 22.

185. Ibid.

186. Jeremy Waldron, ‘Superseding Historic Injustice’ (1992) 103 Ethics 4.

187. Rosemary Nagy, ‘Truth, Reconciliation and Settler Denial: Specifying the Canada — South Africa Analogy’ (2012) 13 Human Rights Review 349, 360.

188. Patrick Wolfe, ‘Nation and MiscegeNation: Discursive Continuity in the Post-Mabo Era’ (1994) 36 Social Analysis 93, 96.

189. Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody, National Report (1991) vol 2, 1.

190. Adrian Little and Mark McMillan, ‘Invisibility and the Politics of Reconciliation in Australia: Keeping Conflict in View’ (2017) 16 Ethnopolitics 519, 530.

191. Jeremy Webber, ‘Forms of Transitional Justice’ in Melissa Williams, Rosemary Nagy and Jon Elster (eds) Transitional Justice (New York University Press, 2012) 98, 114–15.

192. Colin Howard, ‘The High Court’ in Upholding the Australian Constitution: Proceedings of the Fourth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Brisbane, 29–31 July 1994) 48, 53.

193. Ibid.

194. Attwood, ‘Mabo, Australia and the End of History’ (n 63) 107.

195. Paterson (n 87) 4.

196. Begg (n 6).

197. Paul Chamberlin, ‘Mining Chief Lashes Mabo’, Sydney Morning Herald (1 July 1993) 2.

198. Josev (n 1) 131; Markus (n 65) 90. See further Morgan (n 119) 17.

199. Markus (n 65) 93.

200. Hassell (n 71) 43.

201. Cooray (n 80) 93.

202. Geoffrey Blainey, ‘Australia — Two Peoples, Two Nations?’, The Age, 12 June 1993, 2.

203. Geoffrey Blainey, ‘Pieces of the Mabo Jigsaw’, The Age, 23 October 1993, 2. See further Geoffrey Blainey, ‘Mabo, Wik: A Victory for Racial Discrimination: Professor Blainey’, News Weekly (17 May 1997) 12, 14: ‘Australia’s future as a legitimate nation and even as one nation is in doubt’.

204. Begg (n 6).

205. Gideon Rozner in Berg and Hargreaves (n 123).

206. Love (n 15) 227 [125] (Gageler J).

207. See Love (n 15) 209 [25] (Kiefel CJ); 223 [102] (Gageler J); 237 [199] (Keane J); 250 [264] (Nettle J); 268 [356] (Gordon J). For discussion see Synot (n 88).

208. Keith Windschuttle, ‘The Break-Up of Australia: Part I: The Hidden Agenda of Aboriginal Sovereignty’, Quadrant (November 2016) 9, 16. This is an extract of: Keith Windschuttle, The Break-up of Australia: The Real Agenda Behind Aboriginal Reconciliation (Quadrant Books, 2016). See further ‘Constitutional Recognition: The Breakup of Australia?’, Counterpoint, (ABC Radio National, 7 November 2016) <https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/counterpoint/constitutional-recognition:-the-breakup-of-australia/7986364 >.

209. Stone, ‘Fifty Years of Unremitting Failure’ (n 2) (emphasis in original).

210. While Barnaby Joyce has apologised for mischaracterising the Voice, Scott Morrison and Peter Dutton have not: Amy Remeikis, ‘Barnaby Joyce “Apologies” for Calling Indigenous Voice a Third Chamber of Parliament’, Guardian Australia (18 July 2019) <https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/jul/18/barnaby-joyce-apologises-for-calling-indigenous-voice-a-third-chamber-of-parliament >.

211. Interview with the Prime Minister of Australia John Howard (John Laws, 29 May 2000) <https://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/release/transcript-22788 >.

212. Tom McIlroy, ‘Tony Abbott and John Howard Warn Against A Treaty With Indigenous Australians’, Sydney Morning Herald (8 September 2016).

213. New South Wales v Commonwealth (1975) 135 CLR 337, 388 (Gibbs CJ).

214. Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v Victoria (2002) 214 CLR 422, 444 [44] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

215. Love (n 15) 209 [25] (Kiefel CJ); 223 [102] (Gageler J); 237 [199] (Keane J); 250 [264] (Nettle J); 268 [356] (Gordon J).

216. Ibid 268 [356] (Gordon J). Expressions of Indigenous sovereignty are more nuanced than that articulated by the High Court and the New Right: Uluru Statement from the Heart (26 May 2017); Hobbs, Indigenous Aspirations and Structural Reform in Australia (n 67) 57–75; Morris, ‘Love in the High Court’ (n 91) 424–8; Dylan Lino, Constitutional Recognition: First Peoples and the Australian State (Federation Press, 2018) ch 7.

217. Robert French, ‘Native Title — A Constitutional Shift?’ in HP Lee and Peter Gerangelos (eds), Constitutional Advancement in a Frozen Continent (Federation Press, 2009) 126, 144–5.

218. Bernard Smith, The Spectre of Truganini (ABC, 1980) 10.

219. Markus (n 65) 89.

220. Webber, ‘The Jurisprudence of Regret’ (n 173) 15.

221. Brian Keon-Cohen, ‘Wik: Confusing Myth and Reality’ (1997) 20(2) UNSW Law Journal 517, 518. See also Attwood, ‘Mabo, Australia and the End of History’ (n 63) 100.

222. Patrick Dodson, ‘Beyond the Mourning Gate: Dealing with Unfinished Business’ in Robert Tokinson (ed), The Wentworth Lectures: Honouring Fifty Years of Australian Indigenous Studies (Aboriginal Studies Press, 2015) 192.

223. The previous Coalition government initiated a co-design process to develop the Voice but never supported constitutional enshrinement. For more information, see, Tom Calma and Marcia Langton, Indigenous Voice Co-Design Process: Final Report to the Australian Government (National Indigenous Australians Agency, 2021).

224. Francis Markham and Will Sanders, ‘Support for a Constitutionally Enshrined First Nations Voice to Parliament: Evidence from Opinion Research Since 2017’ (Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research, Working Paper No 138/2020).

225. Gabrielle Appleby, Emma Buxton-Namisnyk and Dani Larkin, Indigenous Voice Co-Design Process: An Expert Analysis of the NIAA Public Consultations (29 June 2021) 13.

226. George Williams and Harry Hobbs, Treaty (Federation Press, 2nd ed, 2020) ch 8.

227. Stone, ‘Fifty Years of Unremitting Failure’ (n 2).

228. Uluru Statement (n 216).