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Military Justice and Chapter III: The Constitutional Basis of Courts Martial

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Jonathan Crowe  and
Suri Ratnapala
Jonathan Crowe
Affiliation:
T C Beirne School of Law, University of Queensland
Suri Ratnapala
Affiliation:
T C Beirne School of Law, University of Queensland
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Abstract

The High Court has long struggled with the constitutional status of military tribunals established to hear disciplinary charges against service personnel. The Court's judgments reveal three distinct theories on this issue. The first view holds that military tribunals exercise judicial power, but not ‘the judicial power of the Commonwealth’ within the meaning of s 71 of the Constitution. The second view holds that the power in question is not judicial power at all for constitutional purposes. The third view holds that the power is ‘the judicial power of the Commonwealth’, but can be exercised by courts martial under a limited exception to the rules set out in Chapter III of the Constitution. The first view dominated the High Court's reasoning until Lane v Morrison (2009) 239 CLR 230, where the judges endorsed the second view. This article contends that the first and second views pose insuperable difficulties when placed in their broader constitutional context. The authors therefore argue for the third interpretation. They further argue that the constitutional basis for the third view strongly implies that military tribunals may only exercise jurisdiction over offences by military personnel that relate to service discipline.

Type
Research Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 40 , Issue 2 , June 2012 , pp. 161 - 180
Copyright
Copyright © 2012 The Australian National University

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Footnotes

The comments of the anonymous referee are gratefully acknowledged.

References

1 See, eg, Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW) (1996) 189 CLR 51; South Australia v Totani (2010) 242 CLR 1; Kirk v Industrial Court of New South Wales (2010) 239 CLR 531; Wainohu v New South Wales (2011) 243 CLR 181. For further discussion, see Suri Ratnapala and Jonathan Crowe, ‘Broadening the Reach of Chapter III: The Institutional Integrity of State Courts and the Constitutional Limits of State Legislative Power’ (2012) 36 Melbourne University Law Review (forthcoming).

2 Huddart, Parker & Co Pty Ltd v Moorehead (1909) 8 CLR 330, 355.

3 (1954) 90 CLR 353, 364.

4 (1918) 25 CLR 434, 442, 467, 480.

5 (1956) 94 CLR 254.

6 Ibid 270.

7 Attorney-General (Cth) v The Queen (1957) 95 CLR 529, 538.

8 (2009) 239 CLR 230 ('Lane’).

9 Suri Ratnapala, Australian Constitutional Law: Foundations and Theory (Oxford University Press, 2002) 179-180. See also Zelman, Cowen, ‘The Separation of Judicial Power and the Exercise of Defence Powers in Australia’ (1948) 26 Canadian Bar Review 829Google Scholar; R A, Brown, ‘The Constitutionality of Service Tribunals under the Defence Force Discipline Act 1982’ (1985) 59 Australian Law Journal 319Google Scholar; Andrew, Mitchell and Tania, Voon, ‘Defence of the Indefensible? Reassessing the Constitutional Validity of Military Service Tribunals in Australia’ (1999) 27 Federal Law Review 499Google Scholar.

10 (2007) 231 CLR 570 ('White’).

11 (2009) 239 CLR 230.

12 61 US (20 How) 65, 79 (1858).

13 United States ex rel Toth v Quarles, 350 US 11, 17 (1955).

14 Parker v Levy 417 US 733, 743 (1974).

15 (1942) 66 CLR 452 ('Bevan’).

16 (1945) 71 CLR 1 ('Cox’).

17 (1942) 66 CLR 452, 481.

18 (1945) 71 CLR 1, 23.

19 Australian Constitution s 51.

20 (1942) 66 CLR 452, 466.

21 Ibid 467–8.

22 (1945) 71 CLR 1, 23.

23 Ibid.

24 This interpretation is adopted without much discussion by Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ in Re Tracey; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518, 540 ('Re Tracey’). See also White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 585 (Gleeson CJ). For a different view, see Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518, 582 (Deane J).

25 (1989) 166 CLR 518.

26 Ibid 540.

27 Ibid.

28 Ibid 541.

29 (1989) 166 CLR 518, 572.

30 Ibid 564.

31 Ibid 574. Their Honours reiterated this position in Re Nolan; Ex parte Young (1991) 172 CLR 460, 479.

32 (1989) 166 CLR 518, 583.

33 Ibid 598.

34 (2007) 231 CLR 570.

35 Ibid 595–8.

36 Ibid 585–6.

37 Ibid 649.

38 Ibid 650.

39 (2009) 239 CLR 230.

40 (2009) 239 CLR 230, 248 (French CJ and Gummow J), 256–7 (Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

41 (1909) 8 CLR 330, 357 ('Huddart, Parker’).

42 (2009) 239 CLR 230, 261.

43 Ibid 239, quoting Department of Defence, Government Response to the Senate Report on the Effectiveness of Australia's Military Justice System, Parl Paper No 134 (2005).

44 Ibid 257, quoting 19 Johns 7, 30 (1821).

45 Ibid 248.

46 Ibid 247.

47 Ibid 248.

48 For related criticisms, see White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 616–17 (Kirby J).

49 See, eg, Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518, 574 (Brennan and Toohey JJ); White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 586 (Gleeson CJ).

50 See, eg, Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW) (1996) 189 CLR 51; South Australia v Totani (2010) 242 CLR 1; Kirk v Industrial Court of New South Wales (2010) 239 CLR 531; Wainohu v New South Wales (2011) 243 CLR 181. For discussion, see Ratnapala and Crowe, above n 1.

51 New South Wales v Commonwealth (1915) 20 CLR 54.

52 (1999) 198 CLR 511 ('Re Wakim’).

53 Australian Constitution s 109.

54 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518, 547, 575.

55 Ibid 570.

56 Ibid 571.

57 (1989) 166 CLR 518, 547 (Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ), 575 (Brennan and Toohey JJ), 602–3 (Gaudron J).

58 See White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 649 (Callinan J); Lane (2009) 239 CLR 230, 247 (French CJ and Gummow J).

59 (1945) 71 CLR 1, 23.

60 (1992) 176 CLR 1.

61 Ibid 33.

62 (2004) 219 CLR 562.

63 Ibid 605. Cf 582 (McHugh J), 650 (Hayne J), 657 (Callinan J).

64 (1909) 8 CLR 330, 357.

65 Ibid.

66 (1995) 183 CLR 245, 263 (Mason CJ, Brennan and Toohey JJ), 271 (Deane, Dawson, Gaudron and McHugh JJ).

67 Henry, Burmester, ‘The Rise, Fall and Proposed Rebirth of the Australian Military Court’ (2011) 39 Federal Law Review 195, 205Google Scholar.

68 Ibid 206.

69 (2009) 239 CLR 230, 259.

70 (1977) 138 CLR 1 ('Quinn’).

71 (1957) 100 CLR 277, 305.

72 (1981) 147 CLR 617, 628.

73 (1977) 138 CLR 1, 7-12 (Jacobs J).

74 (1959) 101 CLR 652.

75 Ratnapala, above n 9, 142–3.

76 (2007) 231 CLR 381, 393.

77 (2007) 231 CLR 350, 371.

78 Ibid.

79 (1999) 198 CLR 511.

80 Cowen, above n 9, 842–3.

81 Ibid 843.

82 See, eg, Ratnapala, above n 9, 179–80; Brown, above n 9; Mitchell and Voon, above n 9.

83 (2004) 220 CLR 308 ('Re Aird’).

84 (2007) 231 CLR 570.

85 Ibid 616. Cf Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308, 332.

86 For an earlier argument along these lines, see Ratnapala, above n 9, 179–80.

87 White (2007) 231 CLR 570, 627. Cf Ratnapala, above n 9, 179–80.

88 (1963) 109 CLR 665.

89 (2007) 231 CLR 579, 627.

90 (2004) 220 CLR 308, 327–30; (2007) 231 CLR 570, 616–21.

91 (2004) 220 CLR 301, 341.

92 Senate Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade References Committee, Parliament of Australia, The Effectiveness of Australia's Military Justice System (2005) 88–89.

93 Ibid 90–96.

94 (1997) 24 EHRR 221, 243–6.

95 [1992] 1 SCR 259.

96 Senate Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade References Committee, above n 92, 98.

97 Geoffrey, Kennett, ‘The Constitution and Military Justice after White v Director of Military Prosecutions’ (2008) 36 Federal Law Review 231, 240Google Scholar.

98 (2007) 231 CLR 570, 589.

99 (1991) 172 CLR 460, 485.

100 Ibid 487.

101 (2004) 220 CLR 301, 332.

102 (2007) 231 CLR 570, 616–21.