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Judicial Power, the Duality of Functions and the Administrative Appeals Tribunal

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Allan N Hall*
Affiliation:
Administrative Appeals Tribunal (Cth) and Faculty of Law, Australian National University

Extract

The Administrative Appeals Tribunal (the AAT), which was established by the Administrative Appeals Tribunal Act 1975 (Cth) (the AAT Act), has now been functioning for more than 16 years. From very modest beginnings (see the 25 jurisdictions conferred pursuant to the Schedule to the original AAT Act), the Tribunal has had conferred upon it an increasingly wide range of review jurisdictions (presently in excess of 240), encompassing major areas of governmental decision-making.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © 1994 The Australian National University

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References

1 AM LLB. Formerly a Deputy President of the Administrative Appeals Tribunal (Cth) and Visiting Fellow, Faculty of Law, Australian National University.

2 As a creature of statute, the AAT has jurisdiction only where it is conferred by or pursuant to an “enactment”; see ss 25 and 26 AAT Act; cf Re Qantas Airways Ltd and Deputy Commissioner of Taxation (1979) 2 ALD 291.

3 For example, the former Taxation Boards of Review and the former Commonwealth Employees' Compensation Tribunal.

4 See, for example, the now repealed s 78 of the Superannuation Act 1922 (Cth); cf the former s 83(1) of the Defence Force Retirement Benefits Act 1948 (Cth), considered by the High ourt in Steele v Defence Forces Retirement Benefits Board (1955) 92 CLR 177; and, as to collateral attack, see s 167 of the Customs Act 1901 (Cth). (1926) 38 CLR 153 per Isaacs, Higgins, Gavan-Duffy, Rich and Starke JJ; Knox CJ dissenting.

5 (1930) 44 CLR 530.

6 See s 39 AAT Act; cf Sullivan v Department of Transport (1978) 1 ALD 383 at 402-403.

7 Fletcher v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1988) 84 ALR 295 at 307; Australian Broadcasting Tribunal v Bond (1990) 170 CLR 321 at 365-367.

8 Drake u Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1979) 2 ALD 60 at 68 per Bowen CJ and Deane J; at 77 per Smithers J.

9 Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs v Pochi (1980) 4 ALD 139 at 143 per Smithers J.

10 Federal Court of Australia Act 1976 (Cth), s 19(2); cf Drake (1979) 2 ALD 60 at 61-62.

11 R v Quinn; ex parte Consolidated Food Corporation (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 5 per Barwick CJ and at 9 per Jacobs J.

12 Re Adams and Tax Agents Board (1976) 1 ALD 251 at 253; Drake (1979) 2 ALD 60 at 64 and 67; Bogaards v McMahon (1988) 80 ALR 342 at 349.

13 Huddart Parker & Co Pty Ltd v Moorehead (1909) 8 CLR 330; New South Wales v The Commonwealth (the Wheat case) (1915) 20 CLR 54; Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v J W Alexander Ltd (1918) 25 CLR 24; British Imperial Oil Co Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1925) 35 CLR 422 (the BIO case); R v Kirby; ex parte Boilermakers' Society of Australia (1957) 95 CLR 529: and see L Zines, The High Court and the Constitution (3rd ed 1992) at 147150 and 179-184; cf P H Lane, “The Decline of the Separation of Powers Doctrine” (1981) 55 ALJ 6.

14 See the BIO case (1925) 35 CLR 422; cf Re Cram; ex parte The Newcastle Wallsend Coal Co Pty Ltd (1987) 163 CLR 140.

15 Cf Drake (1979) 2 ALD 60 at 64 per Bowen CJ and Deane J: “The general functions conferred upon the Tribunal are plainly administrative in character”.

16 In Drake (1979) 2 ALD 60 it was held that there was no constitutional objection to appointing a Federal Court Judge in his “personal capacity” to the AAT (cf Hilton v Wells (1985) 157 CLR 57 at 68 and 83) and that the quasi-judicial functions discharged by the Tribunal do not lose their administrative character when performed by a Judge (at 63-65). See also Commonwealth of Australia v Jones (1987) 71 ALR 497.

17 Gungor v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1982) 42 ALR 209.

18 NT Skypak Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1988) 82 ALR 175 at 178.

19 Rola Co (Aust) Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1945) 69 CLR 185 at 217-219 per Williams J; cf .

20 Zines, above n 13 at 153-169.

21 Re Reserve Bank of Australia and Comcare (1989) 17 ALD 682. It may be noted, however, that”ither party had sought to argue the question and that neither of them sought to test the ; ibunal's opinion before the Federal Court.909) 8 CLR 330 at 357.

22 See Anson, W R The Law and Custom of the ConstitutionGoogle Scholar (4th ed 1935) Vol II Part II at Ch XII; W S Holdsworth, A History of English Law (7th ed 1956) Vol 1 at 194-264.

23 See, for example, R v Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353; cf Quinn (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 10-11.

24 See F W Maitland, The Constitutional History of England (1963) at 312-313; R v Trade Practices Tribunal; ex parte Tasmanian Breweries Pty Ltd (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 390 per Windeyer J; Capital TV and Appliances Pty Ltd v Falconer (1971) 125 CLR 591 at 611-612.

25 Boilermakers' case (1957) 95 CLR 529 at 540-541;ciLiyanage v The Queen [1967] 1 AC 259 at 287-288.

26 Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 381-382 per Kitto J; cf Quinn (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 11 per Jacobs J; see also Re Tracey; ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 580 per Deane J.

27 Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 390 per Windeyer J.

28 Alexander (1918) 25 CLR 434 at 445, 451-453, 463-464 and 481; cf Harris v Caladine (1991) 65 ALJR 280 at 289 per Brennan J.

29 Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 368-369; Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 408, 409, 412 and 416; see also Rola Co (1945) 69 CLR 185 at 198-199.

30 Victorian Chamber of Manufacturers v Commonwealth of Australia (1943) 67 CLR 413 at 416-417 per Latham CJ and at 422 per Starke J; cf Pochi (1980) 4 ALD 139 at 156 per Deane J.

31 The BIO case (1925) 35 CLR 422; Silk Bros Pty Ltd v State Electricity Commission of Victoria (1943) 67 CLR 1; Re Cram (1987) 163 CLR 140 at 148.

32 Polyukhovich v Commonwealth of Australia (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 532 per Mason CJ.

33 See, for example, Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 394; Quinn (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 16; Harris v Caladine (1991) 172 CLR 84 at 107-108; Precision Data Holdings Lid v Wills (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 188-189.

34 (1909) 8 CLR 330 at 357.

35 Shell Co (1930) 44 CLR 530 at 542-543.

36 Labour Relations Board of Saskatchewan v John East Ironworks Ltd [1949] AC 134 at 149.

37 Harris v Caladine (1991) 172 CLR 84 at 135 per Toohey J.

38 (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 374-375.

39 See Quinn (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 11 per Jacobs J; cf A V Dicey, Introduction to the Study of The Law of the Constitution (9th ed 1948), introduction by E C S Wade at lxxvii.

40 Fencott v Muller (1983) 152 CLR 570 at 608.

41 (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 11.

42 Ibid.

43 Precision Data Holdings (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 188; Re Cram (1987) 163 CLR 140 at 148; and Jacka v Lewis (1944) 68 CLR 455 at 460.

44 (1991) 172 CLR 84 at 107. See also Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 580 per Deane J; Alexander (1918) 25 CLR 434 at 464 per Isaacs and Rich JJ.

45 Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 580; cf Harris v Caladine (1991) 172 CLR 84 at 147 per Gaudron J; Quinn (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 11 per Jacobs J; and see Polyukhovich (1991) 172 CLR 501 at 608-609 per Deane J, at 685 per Toohey J, and at 703-704 per Gaudron J; cf Chu Keng Lim v Minister for Immigration (1992) 176 CLR 1 at 27.

46 Cf Munro (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 175 per Isaacs J.

47 Quinn (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 11; Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 365; Harris v Caladine (1991) 172 CLR 84 at 147; but c Pochi (1980) 4 ALD 139 at 156 per Deane J.

48 For the sake of convenience, I have adopted the public law private law dichotomy, although recognising that, within the common law tradition, the distinguishing line between the two may not always be entirely clear: see C Harlow, “Public and Private Law: Definition without Distinction”(1980) 43 MLR 241; cf G Samuel, “Public and Private Law: A Private Lawyer's Response” (1983) 46 MLR 558. See also the discussion of“The American ‘Public Rights’ Doctrine”, below at 28.

49 (1945) 69 CLR 185 at 204.

50 In the federal context, see s 75(v) of the Constitution; s 39B of the Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth); and the Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977 (Cth).

51 See Builders' Licensing Board v Sperway Constructions (Sydney) Pty Ltd (1976) 135 CLR 616 at 619; Green v Daniels (1977) 13 ALR1 at 12; Australian Broadcasting Tribunals Bond (1990) 170 CLR 321 at 341 and 357.

52 Green v Daniels (1977) 13 ALR 1 at 12; Bond (1990) 170 CLR 321 at 341 and 357.

53 Cf Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 580 per Deane J.

54 Steele (1955) 92 CLR 177 at 186; Farbenfabriken Bayer A-G v Bayer Pharma Pty Ltd (1959) 101 CLR 652 at 659.

55 Sperway Constructions (1976) 135 CLR 616 at 619.

56 In Re Judiciary and Navigation Acts (1921) 29 CLR 257 at 265.

57 Ibid at 266-267.

58 See, for example, s 75(v) of the Constitution; cf s 39B of the Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth).

59 New South Wales v Commonwealth (No 1) (1932) 46 CLR 155 at 185, cf South Australia v Commonwealth (1962) 108 CLR 130.

60 Munro (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 212 per Starke J.

61 Steele (1955) 92 CLR 177 at 186-187.

62 Ibid.

63 Steele (1955) 92 CLR 177 at 186-188; Gungor (1982) 42 ALR 209 at 211-212; Bayer Pharma (1959) 101 CLR 652 at 659; Commonwealth v Anderson (1957) 97 CLR 345; and see W A Wynes, Legislative, Executive and Judicial Powers in Australia (5th ed 1976) at 482-483.

64 Cf Steele (1955) 92 CLR 177 at 187-188.

65 Precision Data Holdings (1991) 66 ALJR 171 at 176; cf Bond (1990) 170 CLR 321 at 341 per Mason CJ.

66 Steele (1955) 92 CLR 177 at 186-187; cf Avon Downs Pty Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1949) 78 CLR 353 at 360.

67 Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 368.

68 In Re Judiciary and Navigation Acts (1921) 29 CLR 257 at 266-267; cf Minister for Works for the Government of Western Australia v Civil & Civic Pty Ltd (1967) 116 CLR 274; and see Gungor (1982) 42 ALR 209 at 211-212 per Fox J.

69 Victoria v Australian Building Construction Employees' and Builders' Labourers' Federation (No 2) (1982) 152 CLR 179 at 183 per Gibbs CJ.

70 See s 59 AAT Act; cf Reference under Ombudsman Act, Section 11 (1979) 2 ALD 86.

71 R v Hegarty; ex parte Salisbury City Corporation (1981) 36 ALR 275 at 281 per Mason J; Munro (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 177 per Isaacs J.

72 (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 174-178; cf L Zines, above n 13 at 153.

73 Hegarty (1981) 36 ALR 275 at 281; Re Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd; ex parte Federated Miscellaneous Workers' Union of Australia (1987) 163 CLR 656 at 665; Precision Data Holdings (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 189.

74 See “The American ‘Public Rights” Doctrine” below at 28.

75 Labour Relations Board of Saskatchewan v John East Ironworks Ltd [1949] AC 134 at 149.

76 Cf L Zines, above n 13 at 153.

77 See, for example, Re Drake and Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (No 2) (1979) 2 ALD 634; cf Re Aston and Secretary, Department of Primary Industry (1985) 8 ALD 366.

78 The BIO case (1925) 35 CLR 422 at 435-436 per Isaacs J; at 445 per Starke J .

79 Munro (1926) 38 CLR 153.

80 Ibid at 175; cf at 200-201 per Higgins J; at 212 per Starke J.

81 Ibid at 175-176.

82 “Factum”, relevantly, means an “act” or “deed”.

83 Ibid at 176.

84 Ibid at 178.

85 Ibid. Emphasis added.

86 Shell Co (1930) 44 CLR 530 at 544.

87 Ibid at 544-545.

88 Ibid at 544. Emphasis added.

89 See, for example, G Sawyer, “Judicial Power under the Constitution” in R Else-Mitchell(ed), Essays on the Australian Constitution (2nd ed 1961) 71 at 74-76.

90 (1959) 101 CLR 652.

91 Ibid at 659-660.

92 (1977) 138 CLR 1.

93 Ibid at 5 per Barwick CJ; at 6 per Gibbs J; at 8 per Jacobs J, Stephen and Mason JJ agreeing; at 12 per Murphy J.

94 Ibid at 11 per Jacobs J.

95 Ibid at 5 per Barwick CJ; at 6 per Gibbs J; at 8-9 per Jacobs J; at 12 per Murphy J.

96 Cf Rola Co (1945) 69 CLR 187 at 217-218 per Williams J.

97 Drake (1979) 2 ALD 60 at 65; Shell Co (1930) 44 CLR 530 at 544; Quinn (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 5,6, 8-9 and 12.

98 Precision Data Holdings (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 189.

99 (1981) 36 ALR 275.

100 Ibid at 280.

101 Ibid at 281.

102 Ibid at 280.

103 Ibid. Emphasis added.

104 Ibid at 284.

105 (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 371.

106 (1915) 20 CLR 54 at 64 per Griffith CJ; at 83-87 per Isaacs J; and at 106-107 per Powers J.

107 (1987) 163 CLR 140.

108 Ibid at 148. Emphasis added.

109 Ibid at 149.

110 (1987) 163 CLR 656 at 663-666.

111 Ibid at 666. Emphasis added.

112 Precision Data Holdings (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 189.

113 Hegarty (1981) 36 ALR 275 at 281.

114 John East Ironworks Ltd [1949] AC 134 at 149.

115 Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 368-369; cf now s 55 of the Bankruptcy Act 1966 (Cth); see also Queen Victoria Memorial Hospital v Thornton (1953) 87 CLR 144 at 151; R v Federal Court of Bankruptcy; ex parte Loewenstein (1938) 59 CLR 556; Victoria v Australian Building and Construction Employees' and Builders‘ Labourers’ Federation (No 2) (1982) 152 CLR 179 at 183; Precision Data Holdings (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 189.

116 18 How 272 at 284 (1856).

117 See, for example, Federal Radio Commission v General Electric Co 281 US 464 (1930) where it was held that a court could not be given power to perform the administrative function of awarding a radio licence.

118 18 How 272 at 284 (1856). Emphasis added.

119 See Chemerinsky, E, Federal Jurisdiction (1989)Google Scholar at 182-183. Legislative courts are created pursuant to the legislative power conferred on Congress pursuant to Art I, s 8(9) to “constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court”. ludges of legislative courts do not enjoy the security of life tenure nor the salary guarantees conferred by the United States Constitution on judges of Art III courts.

120 Atlas Roofing Co Inc v Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission 430 US 442 at 450 (1977).

121 Crowell v Benson 285 US 22 at 50 (1932).

122 Northern Pipeline Co v Marathon Pipe Line Co 458 US 50 at 68, 73 L Ed 2d 598 at 613 (1982).

123 Ibid at 68.

124 Ibid at 69 per Brennan J.

125 473 US 568 at 585-586 (1985).

126 Ibid at 596-597.

127 See, for example,Redish, M, Federal Jurisdiction: Tensions in the Allocation of Judicial Power (1980)Google Scholar at 44.

128 473 US 568 at 587 (1985). Cf Pochi (1980) 31 ALR 666 at 685 with respect to the power to order deportation.

129 The strict interpretation of Chapter III of the Constitution adopted by the High Court would preclude the creation of any court not complying withthe requirements of that Chapter: see Alexander (1918) 25 CLR 434. As to the place of legislative courts under the United States Constitution, see E Chemerinsky, above n 119 at ch 4. In Australia, the only courts analogous to legislative courts are the courts for federal territories (see Spratt v Hermes(1965) 114 CLR 226) and courts martial (see Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518).

130 Atlas Roofing Co 430 US 442 at 450 (1977).

131 SeeDavis, K C, Administrative Law Treatise (2nd ed 1979) Vol 1Google Scholar at 182-192; B Schwartz, Administrative Law (1979) at 59-86; and see Sunshine Anthracite Coal Co v Adkins 310 US 381 at 400 (1940). A stricter view of the separation of judicial power is evidently still maintained in some States, eg, the State of Illinois – see K C Davis at 184-185.

132 K C Davis, above n 131 at 182.

133 Ibid at 188-192; B Schwartz, above n 131 at 70-85; and see, for example, Atlas Roofing Co 430 US 442 (1977) upholding an order by an administrative agency for payment of a civil money penalty for breach of safety standards.

134 Northern Pipeline 73 L Ed 2d 598 at 614 (1982), note 23; cf B Schwartz, above n 131 at 63.

135 See B Schwartz, above n 131 at 59-60; cf K C Davis, above n 131 at 186-187.

136 (2nd ed 1962) Vol 1 Administrative Law at para 161. Emphasis added.

137 The Wheat case (1915) 20 CLR 54: Hegarty (1981) 36 ALR 275 at 284 per Murphy J.

138 (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 178. Emphasis added.

139 (1930) 44 CLR 530 at 544.

140 Bayly v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1952) 86 CLR 506 at 509-510 per Williams J; Deputy Federal Commissioner of Taxation v Brown (1958) 100 CLR 32 at 40-41 per Dixon CJ and at 52 per Williams J; cf MacCormick v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1984) 158 CLR 622 at 639643 per Gibbs CJ, Wilson, Deane and Dawson JJ; at 646 per Murphy J; and at 658 per Brennan J.

141 MacCormick (1984) 158 CLR 622 at 646 per Murphy J; cf at 658 per Brennan J; see also Brown (1958) 100 CLR 32 at 52 per Williams J.

142 (1951) 83 CLR 1; see MacCormick (1984) 158 CLR 622 at 639-640 per Gibbs CJ, Wilson,Deane and Dawson JJ; L Zines, above n 13 at 167-168.

143 (1984) 15g CLR 622 at 65g.

144 Section 187 of the Income Tax Assessment Act 1936 (Cth) and part IVB, Taxation Administration Act 1953 (Cth).

145 (1988) 82 ALR 175 at 178-182.

146 Cf Munro (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 178 per Isaacs J.

147 (1945) 69 CLR 185 at 218.

148 (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 11.

149 Ibid at 10.

150 Cf L Zines, above n 13 at 166.

151 Section 167 of the Customs Act 1901 (Cth) enables a collateral challenge to be brought before a court in relation to a customs tariff classification decision; cf s 273GA of that Act as to administrative review of such a decision before the AAT; see also A N Hall, “The Jurisdiction of the Administrative Appeals Tribunal in Customs Matters” (1986) 14 Aust Bus L Rev 157.

152 Committee of Direction of Fruit Marketing v Australian Postal Commissioner (1979) 2 ALD 561 at 569; Commonwealth Banking Corporation v Percival (1988) 82 ALR 54 at 60; cf Waterford v The Commonwealth (1987) 71 ALR 673 at 689.

153 TNT $kyvak (198g) 82 ALR 175 at 17g per Gummow j.

154 Commissioner of Taxation v Finn (1960) 103 CLR 165 at 167.

155 Cf TNT Skypack (1988) 82 ALR 175 at 178-182; see also Commissioner of Taxation v Brixius (1987) 7 AAR 316.

156 CfL Zines, aboven 13 at 166-167.

157 (1945) 69 CLR 185.

158 See, for example,Zines, LGoogle Scholar above n 13 at 162-164; cf C Howard, Australian Federal Constitutional Law (2nd ed 1972) at 162-164.

159 (1945) 69 CLR 185 at 198 per Latham CJ; at 205 per Rich J; at 212 per Starke J; at 213 per McTiernan J; at 216 per Williams J.

160 Women's Employment Regulations (Cth), reg 5C(5).

161 (1945) 69 CLR 185 at 197-198 per Latham CJ and at 212 per Starke J.

162 Ibid at 200-201 per Latham CJ and at 211-212 per Starke J.

163 Ibid at 205 per Rich J; at 216 per Williams J.

164 Ibid at at 206-207 per Rich J; at 216-218 per Williams J.

165 Ibid at 217. Williams J drew no distinction between findings of fact made in the course of determining an action for the recovery of wages (an exercise of the primary aspect of exclusive judicial power) and findings made in the course of determining a dispute over public law rights (see at 218). In this latter respect, his Honour's views are inconsistent with the Full Court decision in Quinn (1977) 138 CLR 1.

166 (1987) 163 CLR 140.

167 (1987) 163 CLR 656.

168 No such limitation applies under the United States Constitution: see Atlas Roofing Co Inc v Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission 430 US 442; 51 L Ed 2d 464 (1977); cf E Chemerinsky, above n 119 at 196-216 as to the use of legislative courts and administrative agencies as “adjuncts” to Article III Courts.

169 BTR pLC v westingtouse Brake and Signal Co (Aust) Ltd (1992) 15 AAR 100 at 106; cf Bond (1990) 170 CLR 321 at 353 per Mason CJ; at 365 per Brennan J; at 369 per Deane J; and at 387 per Toohey and Gaudron JJ. Cf ss 5, 6 and 10 of the ADJR Act, s 75 (v) of the Constitution and s 39B of the Judiciary Act 1901 (Cth).

170 Bond (1990) 170 CLR 321 at 356 per Mason CJ: cf Sinclair v Maryborough Mining Warden (1975) 132 CLR 473 at 481 and 483.

171 Waterford v The Commonwealth (1987) 163 CLR 54 at 77 per Brennan J.

172 R v District Court; ex parte White (1966) 116 CLR 644 at 654 per Menzies J.

173 See Bond (1990) 170 CLR 321 at 359-360; cf Detsongjarus v Minister for Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs (1990) 21 ALD 139 at 141 per Pincus J; and see P Bayne, “Judicial Review of Questions of Fact”(1992) 66 ALJ 96.

174 (1990) 170 CLR 321 at 341.

175 Ibid at 357.

176 Precision Data Holdings (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 189; cf Munro (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 177; Rola Co (1945) 69 CLR 185 at 200-201 and 211-212.

177 Bond (1990) 170 CLR 321 at 341; see also Sean Investments Pty Ltd v MacKellar (1981) 38 ALR 363 at 370-371.

178 Pastras v The Commonwealth (1966) 9 FLR 152; Huysse v Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Authority (1975) 24 FLR 418; cf Re Powers and Commonwealth of Australia (1984) 6 ALD 187.

179 (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 176-177. Cf Rola Co (1945) 69 CLR 185 at 198-199 per Latham CJ; at 211-212 per Starke J.

180 BTR PLC (1992) 15 AAR100 at 106; cf Sullivan v Department of Transport (1978) 1 ALD 383 at 409; Adamou v Director-General of Social Security (1985) 7 ALN, N 203 at 207; Minister for Health v Charvid Pty Ltd (1986) 10 ALD 124.

181 Blackwood Hodge (Aust) Pty Ltd v Collector of Customs (No 2) (1980) 3 ALD 38 at 49 per Fisher J.

182 Committee of Direction of Fruit Marketing (1979) 2 ALD 561 at 569; Commonwealth Banking Corporation v Percival (1988) 82 ALR 54 at 60; cf Waterford v The Commonwealth (1987) 71 ALR 673 at 689 per Brennan J.

183 Waterford, ibid.

184 Collins v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1981) 4 ALD 198 at 201.

185 Quinn (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 11. In America, agency decisions are tested against the “substantial evidence” rule, which tests “the reasonableness not the tightness of agency findings of fact”: see B Schwartz, above n 131 at 591-597: and see, for example, Universal Camera Corp v NLRB 34 US 474 (1951); cf R J Pierce, S A Shapiro and P R Verkuil, Administrative Law and Process (1985) at 357-363. Agency findings of fact that meet this test are accepted as conclusive.

186 Cf percival(l988) 82 ALR 54 at 60; Waterford (1987) 71 ALR 673 at 689.

187 R v Hickman; ex parte Fox and Clinton (1945) 70 CLR 598; Rola Co (1945) 69 CLR 185 at 196197; for a similar conclusion in America, see Crowell v Benson 285 US 22 (1932); but cf S G Breyer and R A Stewart, Administrative Law and Regulatory Policy (2nd ed 1985) at 62-66.

188 Hickman (1945) 70 CLR 598 at 614; cf Kuswardana v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1981) 35 ALR 186.

189 Re McHattan and Collector of Customs (1977) 1 ALD 67.

190 Ibid at 70.

191 Cf Bogaards v McMahon (1988) 80 ALR 342.

192 Cf Re Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd (1987) 163 CLR 656 at 663-666; Precision Data Holdings (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 189.

193 Re Adams (1976) 1 ALD 251 at 257; cf Caffoor v Commissioner of Income Tax, Colombo [1961] AC 584 at 598.

194 Cf Re Cram (1987) 163 CLR 140 at 149.

195 See, for example, Collector of Customs (Tasmania) v Flinders Island Community Association (1986) 60 ALR 717 at 725; cf Re Pacific Film Laboratories Pty Ltd and Collector of Customs (1979) 2 ALD 144 at 151-155.

196 See, for example, Dineen v Secretary, Department of Social Security (1988) 17 ALD 1; cf Secretary, Department of Social Security v James (1990) 20 ALD 5.

197 Secretary, Department of Housing and Construction v Wildman (1984) 3 AAR 38 at 42.

198 Re Buhagiar and Director-General of Social Services (1981) 4 ALD 113 at 121-123; but see now s 1237 of the Social Security Act 1991 (Cth); cf Church v Secretary, Department of Education (1987) 73 ALR 69 at 84 per Sheppard J; at 96 per Neaves J; 105-106 per Everett J.

199 Re Taylor and Director-General of Social Security (1984) 6 ALD 500 at 503-504.

200 Re Adams (1979) 1 ALD 251 at 257.

201 R v Hickman; ex parte Fox and Clinton (1945) 70 CLR 598 at 618 per Dixon J; cf Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361; and see Kuswardana v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1981) 35 ALR 186.

202 Re Cram (1987) 163 CLR 140 where the Local Coal Authority failed to recognise that the power it proposed to exercise was judicial power; cf Hegarty (1981) 36 ALR 275 where the Board of Reference had considered and rejected the argument that the power committed to it was judicial power – an opinion upheld by the High Court.

203 See ss 25 and 26 AAT Act and the definition of “decision” in s 3.

204 Collector of Customs (New South Wales) v Brian Lawlor Automotive Pty Ltd (1979) 2 ALD 1 affirming the decision of the President of the AAT in Re Brian Lawlor Automotive Pty Ltd and Collector of Customs (1978) 1 ALD 167.

205 (1978) 1 ALD 167 at 181.

206 (1979) 2 ALD 1 at 6 per Bowen CJ; at 21 per Smithers J; at 30-31 per Deane J.

207 [1969] 2 AC 147 at 170.

208 (1979) 2 ALD 1 at 30.

209 Ibid at 6.

210 Ibid at 6-7 per Bowen CJ; at 27 per Smithers J.

211 Ibid at 31.

212 Ibid at 6.

213 Ibid at 6 per Bowen CJ; at 30 per Deane J.

214 (1979) 2 ALD at 4-5 per Bowen CJ; at 22-23 per Smithers J; at 30 per Deane J; cf (1978) 1 ALD 167 at 177-178 per Brennan J.

215 Re Adams (1976) 1 ALD 251; cf Re McKie and Minister for Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs (1988) 8 AAR 80.

216 Australian Apple and Pear Board v Tonking (1942) 66 CLR 77 at 104 per Rich J.

217 Cf Re Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd (1987) 163 CLR 656 at 666.

218 Cf Re McKie (1988) 8 AAR 80 at 96.

219 (1976) 1 ALD 251.

220 Ibid at 259.

221 South Australia v The Commonwealth (1942) 65 CLR 373 at 408 per Latham CJ.

222 (1979)2 ALD 1 at 31.

223 (1988) 8 AAR 80.

224 Ibid at 96.

225 See s 15AA, Acts Interpretation Act 1901 (Cth).

226 South Australian v The Commonwealth (1942) 65 CLR 373 at 408.

227 (1989) 17 ALD 682.

228 Ibid at 683.

229 Ibid at 684.

230 (1977) 138 CLR 1.

231 See, for example, Anderson (1957) 97 CLR 345.

232 Pastras v The Commonwealth (1966) 9 FLR 152; Huysse v Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Authority (1975) 24 FLR 418; Cf Quinn (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 10.

233 Cf Hegarty (1981) 36 ALR 275 at 280 per Mason J.

234 See s 15A, Acts Interpretation Act 1901 (Cth).

235 Re R M and Commissioner for Superannuation (1984) 6 ALD 272 at 285-288; affirmed on appeal by the Federal Court, sub nom McMullan v Commissioner for Superannuation (1986) 61 ALR 189; cf Re Nelson and Secretary Department of Social Security (1986) 10 ALD 408; Re Zimmax Trading Pty Ltd and Collector of Customs (1979) 2 ALD 120 at 125-126; cf Re McKie (1988) 8 AAR 80 at 96-99.

236 Re R M (1985) 6 ALD 272 at 286-287; cf Brian Lawlor Automotive (1979) 2 ALD 1 at 7 per Bowen CJ.

237 (1990) 12 AAR 323; cf Re Zimmax Trading Pty Ltd (1979) 2 ALD 120 at 125-126; Re Costello and Department of Transport (1979) 2 ALD 934 at 937-939; but see also Re Tomago Aluminium Co Pty Ltd and Collector of Customs (1988) 17 ALD 583.

238 See s 17(q) of the Acts Interpretation Act 1901 (Cth).

239 (1990) 12 AAR 323 at 335-341.

240 Cf Re R M (1985) 6 ALD 272 at 285-288.

241 Cf Re Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd (1987) 163 CLR 656 at 663-666.

242 (1981) 151 CLR 170.

243 Ibid at 193 per Gibbs CJ; at 215-216 per Stephen J; at 217 per Mason J; at 267-269 per Aickin J; at 284 per Wilson J.

244 See Pearce, D Delegated Legislation in Australia and New Zealand (1977)Google Scholar at 92.

245 Bank of New South Wales v The Commonwealth (1948) 76 CLR 1 at 371 per Dixon J; cf D Pearce, above n 244 at 282-285.

246 Browne v Commissioner for Railways (1936) 36 SR (NSW) 21.

247 It appears that no appeal was lodged by the respondent in Jonsson; but neither has there been any amendment of the regulations up to the end of May 1994. This tends to leave the issue in an unsatisfactory state and suggests that it may have been preferable for the Tribunal to have referred the question to the Federal Court for decision.

248 (1988) 17 ALD 583.

249 It should be noted that the Tribunal was also of the opinion that it lacked jurisdiction to review refund decisions. In this it was mistaken; see para 13(a) in Sch 1 to the AAT Act (since repealed); see now s 273GA of the Customs Act 1901 (Cth).

250 See, in this regard, the earlier analysis of Re Adams (1979) 1 ALD 251 and Re McKie (1988) 8 AAR 80; cf Brian Lawlor (1979) 2 ALD 1 at 31 per Deane J.

251 Cf Re Cram (1987) 163 CLR 140.

252 Cf Rola Co (1945) 69 CLR 185 at 212 per Starke J; at 218 per Williams J.

253 Cf Hegarty (1981) 36 ALR 275 at 280; Shell Co (1930) 44 CLR 530 at 544; Munro (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 176; see also L Zines, above n 13 at 166. For the position in America, see Atlas Roofing Co 430 US 442 at 455, n 13 (1977).

254 (1981) 36 ALR 561 at 565.

255 (1982) 42 ALR 209.

256 Ibid at 212.

257 Ibid at 220.

258 Ibid at 221.

259 Ibid at 222.

260 (1988) 82 ALR 175 at 178-82; and see J H Momsen, “Appeals from the Australian Administrative Appeals Tribunal to the Federal Court – Is There a ‘Matter’ Involved?” Aust Fed Tax Reporter Vol 11 at 883,058-62.

261 Federal Commissioner of Taxation v Brixius (1987) 87 ATC 4963 at 4967.

262 Federal Commissioner of Taxation v Brown (1958) 100 CLR 32 at 40 per Dixon CJ; see also at 52 per Williams J; see also MacCormick (1984) 158 CLR 622 at 639-643, 646 and 658.

263 Fencott v Midler (1983) 152 CLR 570 at 608.

264 TNT skypak (1988) 82 ALR 175 at 181.

265 Fencott v Muller (1983) 152 CLR 570 at 608.

266 Quinn (1977) 138 CLR 1 at 11.

267 See s 75(v) of the Commonwealth Constitution; Rola Co (1945) 69 CLR 185 at 204; Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 580.

268 Bond (1990) 170 CLR 321 at 341 and 357.

269 Commonwealth Administrative Review Committee, Report (August 1971) Parliamentary Paper No 144 of 1971 (The Kerr Report) at ch 3.

270 Gungor (1982) 42 ALR 209 at 212 and 223.

271 See s 1422 of the Taxation Administration Act 1953 (Cth).

272 See Kolotex Hosiery (Australia) Pty Ltd v Commissioner of Taxation (1975) 132 CLR 535 at 567 as to the limitations in cases involving discretionary powers. See also BOA Pty Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1981) 81 ATC 4492.

273 Cf Giris Pty Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1969) 119 CLR 365 at 378-379 per Kitto J; MacCormick (1984) 158 CLR 622 at 640-641 per Gibbs CJ, Wilson, Deane and Dawson JJ; and at 658 per Brennan J.

274 Cf Justice F G Brennan, “New Growth in the Law – The Judicial Contribution” (1979) 6 Mon L R 1 at 12-22; E Campbell, “The Choice Between Judicial and Administrative Tribunals and the Separation of Powers” (1981) 12 Fed L R 24 at 24-26.

275 Munro (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 176-177; Bailey v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1977) 13 ALR 41 at 42 per Barwick CJ; Hegarty (1981) 36 ALR 275 at 284 per Murphy J; cf Brennan J, above n 274 at 12.

276 See ss 33, 35, 39 and 40 AAT Act.

277 Steele (1955) 92 CLR 177 at 187-188; Avon Downs Pty Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1949) 78 CLR 353 at 360; Mobil Oil Australia Pty Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1963) 113 CLR 475 at 503; Commonwealth of Australia v Anderson (1957) 97 CLR 345 at 353; cf Secretary, Department of Housing and Construction v Wildman (1984) 3 AAR 38 at 43.

278 See s 43(1) AAT Act; cf Federal Commissioner of Taxation v Brian Hatch Timber Co (Sales) Pty Ltd (1972) 128 CLR 28 at 59 per Owen J; cf Kolotex Hosiery (Australia) Pty Ltd v Commissioner of Taxation (1975) 132 CLR 535 at 567 per Gibbs J.

279 Precision Data Holdings (1991) 173 CLR 167 at 188-189; cf Re Cram (1987) 163 CLR 140 at 148.

280 Silk Bros (1943) 67 CLR 1 and G Sawer, Cases on the Constitution (3rd ed 1964) at 583.

281 Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 390 per Windeyer J.

282 Cf Bogaards v McMahon (1988) 80 ALR 342 at 349.

283 Pochi (1980) 4 ALD 139 at 143.

284 Re Brian Lawlor (1978) 1 ALD 167 at 175.

285 AAT Act, s 43(6).

286 Re Callaghan and Defence Force Retirement and Death Benefits Authority (1978) 1 ALD 227 at 230.

287 Cf Bailey (1977) 13 ALR 41 at 42 per Barwick CJ; Batagol v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1962-3) 109 CLR 243 at 252 per Kitto J; Federal Commissioner of Taxation v Dalco (1990) 90 ATC 4088 at 4096-7 per Toohey J.

288 (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 176.

289 Free Lanka Insurance Co Ltd v Ranasinghe [1963] AC 541 at 552; but see L Zines, above n 13 at 158; cf Australian Telecommunications Commission v Novak (1989) 86 ALR 457 at 461.

290 Munro (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 177.

291 Cf L Zines, above n 13 at 152. Administrative decisions made in the exercise of discretionary powers are, by contrast, usually constitutive: Silk Bros (1943) 67 CLR 1.

292 AAT Act, s 43(1); cf Steele (1955) 92 CLR 177 at 187-188.

293 See Dahlia Mining Co Ltd v Collector of Customs (1989) 90 ALR 193.

294 Cf Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 390.

295 Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 367-368; Harris v Caladine (1991) 65 ALJR 280 at 289 and 306.

296 Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 390 per Windeyer J.

297 Fencott v Midler (1983) 152 CLR 570 at 608.

298 Swan Hill Corporation v Bradbury (1937) 56 CLR 746 at 757-758 per Dixon J.

299 (1987) 1 WLR 1166 at 1175; cited with approval by the Full Court of the Federal Court in Australian Trade Commission v WA Meat Exports Pty Ltd (1987) 75 ALR 287 at 292.

300 Bond (1990) CLR 321 at 356.

301 Munro (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 177.

302 “Adjudication” is not seen, in this country, as exclusively a function of judicial power: the Wheat case (1915) 20 CLR 50 at 64 per Griffith CJ; at 83-87 per Isaacs J; and at 106-107 per Powers J; cf Hegarty (1981) 36 ALR 275 at 284 per Murphy J; Tasmanian Breweries (1970) 123 CLR 361 at 371 per McTiernan J. In the writer's respectful view, the decision to the contrary in Midland Metals Overseas Ltd v Comptroller-General of Customs (1991) 39 FCR 87 at 97, involves a misunderstanding of the decision-making processes of the AAT.

303 Cf Munro (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 177.

304 See, E Willheim, “Commentary” (1981) 12 Fed L R 62; cf J Goldring, “Responsible Government and the Administrative Appeals Tribunal” (1982) 13 Fed L R 90.

305 See, for example, Strauss, P LThe Place of Agencies in Government: Separation of Powers and the Fourth Branch” (1984)Google Scholar 84 Col L R 573.

306 Drake (1979) 2 ALD 60 at 70 and 77.

307 (1979) 2 ALD 634.

308 Cf Victorian Stevedoring and General Contracting Co Pty Ltd v Dignan (1931) 46 CLR 73 at 101102; cf B Schwartz, above n 131 at 59; K C Davis, above n 131, Vol 1 at 184-185.

309 See the Kerr Report, above n 269 at ch 2; cf Munro (1926) 38 CLR 153 at 200 per Higgins J.