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“Inconsistent” Commonwealth and State Laws: Centralizing Government Power in the Australian Federation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Peter Hanks
Peter Hanks*
Affiliation:
Faculty of Law, Monash University
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Extract

The history of Australian federalism is one of the steady accretion of power to the central institutions of government, in particular the Commonwealth Parliament. The continuing shift from the States to the Commonwealth of effective power to regulate so many aspects of Australia’s economic and social life has, in general, been accepted and encouraged by the justices of the High Court – at least since the critical Engineers’ decision.

This acceptance and encouragement has been most conspicuous on those occasions when the High Court has endorsed the Commonwealth’s adventurous exploration of its legislative powers; when, for example, the Court decided that the defence and taxation powers would allow the Commonwealth to assume an effective monopoly over income taxation, that the overseas trade and commerce power would allow the Commonwealth to discourage sand mining in Queensland, or that the external affairs power would allow the Commonwealth to proscribe acts of racial discrimination inside Australia.

Type
Research Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 16 , Issue 2 , June 1986 , pp. 107 - 134
Copyright
Copyright © 1986 The Australian National University

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References

1 Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd (1920) 28 CLR 129.

2 See Crommelin, M and Evans, G, “Explorations and Adventures with Commonwealth Powers”, in G Evans (ed) Labor and the Constitution 1972-1975 1977, 24-66.Google Scholar

3 South Australia v Commonwealth (1942) 65 CLR 373.

4 Murphyores Incorporated Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1976) 136 CLR I.

5 Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen (1982) 39 ALR 417.

6 Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd (1920) 28 CLR 129.

7 University of Wollongong v Metwally (1984) 56 ALR I.

8 Commonwealth Constitution, s 52.

9 Ibid ss 90, 114 and I 15.

10 Ibid ss 51{iv), 51(xxix) and 51(xxx).

11 As defined in eg s 5 of the Constitution Act 1902 (NSW) or s 16 of the Constitution Act 1975 (Vic) and preserved by s 107 of the Commonwealth Constitution.

12 Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd (1920) 28 CLR 129, 150 and 155.

13 See eg Federated Saw Mill etc Employees' Association v James Moore & Sons Pty Ltd (1909) 8 CLR 465; and Australian Boot Trade Employees Federation v Whybrow & Co (1910) 10 CLR 266.

14 (1910) JO CLR 266.

15 Ibid 299.

16 Ibid 339.

17 Ibid 330.

18 In Clyde Engineering v Cowburn (1916) 31 CLR 466, 489.

19 (1915) 20 CLR 148.

20 (1922) 30 CLR 144.

21 (1920) 28 CLR I.

22 (1920) 28 CLR 23.

23 (1920) 28 CLR 29.

24 See Peterswald v Bartley (1904) 1 CLR 497; R v Barger (1908) 6 CLR 41; and Huddart Parker & Co Pty Ltd v Moorehead (1909) 8 CLR 330.

25 See eg his dissent in Clyde Engineering v Cowburn (1926) 37 CLR 466, 500.

26 (1912) 15 CLR 241, 250.

27 The only clear example I have located is R v Licensing Court of Brisbane; ex parte Daniell (1920) 28 CLR 23

28 Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd (1920) 28 CLR 129.

29 Ibid 150, 155.

30 (1926) 37 CLR 466.

31 Ibid 477-479 per Knox CJ and Gavan Duffy J, 490 per Isaacs J, 522 per Rich J.

32 Ibid 489-491 per Isaacs J, 527 per Starke J.

33 Ibid 503 per Higgins J, 516 per Powers J.

34 Ibid 478.

35 Miller v Miller (1978) 141 CLR 269, 275.

36 Australian Boot Trade Employees Federation v Whybrow & Co (1910) 10 CLR 266.

37 (1943) 68 CLR 151.

38 Ibid 160 per Latham CJ, 161 per Starke J, 163 per Williams J .

39 (1968) 117 CLR 253.

40 Ibid 258.

41 See, in addition to the passages cited at nn 31-2, Mason J in R v Credit Tribunal: ex parte GMAC (1977) 137 CLR 545, 563 and 565; and Stephen J inAnsett Transport Industries(Operations) Pty Ltd v Wardley (1980) 142 CLR 237, 253.

42 (1965) 113 CLR 54.

43 (1937) 58 CLR 618.

44 See text infra nn 51-76.

45 Compare the majority and minority judgments in Ansett Transport Industries (Operations) Pty Ltd v Wardley (1980) 142 CLR 237.

46 (I 926) 37 CLR 466, 490-491.

47 (1930) 43 CLR 472.

48 See TA Robinson & Sons Pty Ltd v Haylor (1957) 97 CLR 177, 184.

49 (1930) 43 CLR 472.

50 Ibid 483.

51 (1943) 68 CLR 151, 158-159.

52 See text supra nn 37-38.

53 (1954) 92 CLR 565.

54 See text supra n 51.

55 (1954) 92 CLR 565, 593.

56 (1956) 95 CLR 177.

57 Ibid 187.

58 (1965) 113 CLR 54.

59 Ibid 121-122.

60 (1980) 142 CLR 237.

61 Ibid 250.

62 Ibid

63 Ibid 253.

64 Ibid 250.

65 (1983) 45 ALR 579.

66 In an action consolidated with these proceedings, the validity of the Hospital Benefits (Levy) Act 1982 (Vic) was raised for decision by the court. As with the New South Wales legislation, the Victorian Act was said to be not inconsistent with the National Health Act 1953 (Cth).

67 Gibbs CJ, Mason Murphy and Wilson 11; Deane J dissenting.

68 (1983) 45 ALR 579, 587, 590 per Gibbs CJ, Murphy and Wilson 11.

69 Ibid 589, 590 per Gibbs CJ, Murphy and Wilson 11; 602 per Deane J dissenting.

70 Ibid 588 per Gibbs CJ, Murphy and Wilson 11; 603 per Deane J.

71 Ibid 588, 603.

72 Ibid 590 per Gibbs CJ, Murphy and Wilson 11; 597 per Mason J.

73 Ibid 605.

74 See eg Wragg v New South Wales (1953) 88 CLR 353; Fairfax v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1965) 114 CLR 1; andMurphyores Incorporated Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1976) 136 CLR I.

75 See, eg Logan Downs Pty Ltd v Queensland (1977) 137 CLR 59.

76 See, eg, SOS (Mowbray) Pty Ltd v Mead (1972) 124 CLR 529 and Finemores Transport Pty Ltd v New South Wales (1978) 139 CLR 338.

77 No doubt the search for this intention is linked with the identification of the field of the Commonwealth law: the more narrowly the field is defined, the easier it will be to infer an intention on the part of the law maker to cover that field.

78 Clyde Engineering v Cowburn (1926) 37 CLR 466.

79 See text supra n 46.

80 (1954) 92 CLR 565.

81 Dixon CJ, Fullagar and Kitto JJ.

82 (1954) 92 CLR 565, 591.

83 Ibid 591-2.

84 Ibid 603.

85 O'Sullivan v Noarlunga Meat Ltd (1956) 95 CLR 177.

86 Lane, P H The Australian Federal System (2nd edn, Law Book Co., 1979) 894Google Scholar

87 (1957) 97 CLR 177.

88 (1977) 138 CLR 399.

89 Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Williams, Webb, Kitto and Taylor JJ.

90 (1957) 97 CLR 177, 184.

91 (1977) 138 CLR 399, 416.

92 Ibid 417. On this point, compare the majority and minority judgments in Ansett Transport Industries (Operations) Pty Ltd v Wardley (1980) 142 CLR 237.

93 Hume v Palmer (1926) 38 CLR 441, 462; and Victoria v Commonwealth (the Shipwreckscase) (I 937) 58 CLR 618, 628.

94 Wenn v Attorney-General for Victoria (1948) 77 CLR 84.

95 Victoria v Commonwealth (the Shipwrecks case) (1937) 58 CLR 618, 638.

96 >R v Loewenthal; ex parte Blacklock (1974) 131 CLR 338.

97 Viskauskas v Niland (1983) 47 ALR 32.

98 (1937) 58 CLR 618.

99 Ibid 628.

100 Ibid 630-1.

101 (1983) 47 ALR 32.

102 Gibbs CJ, Mason, Murphy, Wilson and Brennan JJ.

103 (1983) 47 ALR 32, 40-41.

104 Expressed in Victoria v Commonwealth (the Shipwrecks case) (1937) 58 CLR 618, 638.

105 (1937) 58 CLR 618.

106 Ibid 638.

107 (1948) 77 CLR 84.

108 Ibid 110.

109 Ibid 120. On the analogous question of the limits of the Commonwealth's constitutional power to confer an immunity from State laws, see Australian Coastal Shipping Commission v O'Reilly (1962) 107 CLR 46 and Gazzo v Comptroller of Stamps (Vic) (1981) 38 ALR 25.

110 (1984) 56 ALR I.

111 (1974) 131 CLR 338.

112 Ibid 347.

113 (1977) 137 CLR 545.

114 Barwick CJ, Gibbs, Stephen, Mason and Murphy JJ.

115 (1948) 77 CLR 84.

116 (1977) 137 CLR 545, 563.

117 Ibid 563-4.

118 (1977) 140 CLR 236.

119 (1977) 137 CLR 545.

120 (1977) 140 CLR 236, 243.

121 (I 984) 56 ALR I.

122 Ibid 5-6 per Gibbs CJ; 9 per Mason J; 20 per Brennan J; 26-27 per Dawson J.

123 Gibbs CJ, Murphy, Brennan and Deane JJ; Mason, Wilson and Dawson JJ dissenting.

124 (1983) 47 ALR 32.

125 supra n 102.

126 (1984) 56 ALR 1, 6 per Gibbs CJ; 15, 16 per Murphy J; 18-19 per Brennan J; 21-22, 23 127 per Deane J. See also ibid 9 per Mason J; 26-27, 29 per Dawson J.

127 (1961) 106 CLR 268, 283.

128 (1984) 56 ALR 1, 7.

129 Ibid 19.

130 Ibid 20.

131 Ibid 16 per Murphy J. See also ibid 22 per Deane J.

132 Ibid 15.

133 Ibid 24.

134 Ibid 21. Deane J described the contention, that the Commonwealth Parliament could retrospectively validate or invalidate State legislation as “a timely one in that it is readily adaptable to Orwellian notions of doublethink”.

135 Ibid 6-7.

136 Ibid 6.

137 Ibid 7.

138 Ibid 9 per Mason J; 26 per Dawson J.

139 Ibid 9 per Mason J.

140 Ibid 28 per Dawson J.

141 As identified by the High Court in Viskauskas v Niland (1983) 47 ALR 32.

142 As confirmed by the High Court in R v Credit Tribunal; ex parte General Motors Acceptance Corporation Australia (1977) 137 CLR 545 and Palmdale-AGCI Ltd v Workers' Compensation Commission (NSW) (1977) 140 CLR 236.

143 A proposition never disputed since R v Kidman (1915) 20 CLR 425.

144 As held in Butler v Attorney-General (Vic) (1961) 106 CLR 268. Each of these steps is traced in the judgments of Mason J (1984) 56 ALR I, 9-10; and Dawson J ibid 26-28.

145 (1984) 56 ALR I, II.

146 Ibid 21 per Deane J; see also ibid 7 per Gibbs CJ.

147 Ibid 11 per Mason J; 29 per Dawson J.

148 Ibid 10 per Mason J; 17 per Wilson J; 28 per Dawson J.

149 Ibid 5-6 per Gibbs CJ; 9 per Mason J; 20 per Brennan J; 26-27 per Dawson J.

150 Rumble, G, “The Nature of Inconsistency Under s 109 of the Constitution” (1980) 11 F L Rev 40, 77Google Scholar.

151 (1977) 137 CLR 545, 563-564; supra n 117.

152 (1978) 141 CLR 269, 275; supra n 35.

153 Supra n 146.

154 (1980) 142 CLR 237.

155 (1930) 43 CLR 472, 484-485.

156 Stephen, Mason, Murphy and Wilson JJ; Barwick CJ and Aickin J dissenting.

157 (1980) 142 CLR 237, 262-264 per Mason J; 289 per Wilson J.

158 Ibid 279.

159 Ibid 275, 276.

160 Ibid 280.

161 Ibid.

162 Ibid 248.

163 Ibid 260-261.

164 Ibid 259.

165 Ibid 274.

166 Ibid 248.

167 Ibid 254.

168 Ibid 247.

169 Ibid 248. In emphasizing the different subject matters or fields of the Commonwealth or State laws, Stephen J was anticipating the High Court's approach in New South Wales v Commonwealth (the Hospital Benefits case) (1983) 45 ALR 579: supra n 65.

170 (1980) 142 CLR 237.

171 (1926) 37 CLR 466, 490-491; supra nn 31-32.

172 (1977) 137 CLR 545, 563-564; supra n 117.

173 (1984) 56 ALR I, 5-6 per Gibbs J; 9 per Mason J; 20 per Brennan J; 26-27 per Dawson J.

174 For the use of this term, see the passages cited supra nn 38, 41.

175 Rumble, G “The Nature of Inconsistency Under Section 109 of the Constitution” (1980) II FL Rev 40 79Google Scholar

176 Ibid 80.

177 Victoria v Commonwealth (the Second Uniform Tax case) (1957) 99 CLR 575, 614.

178 Melbourne Corporation v Commonwealth (1945) 74 CLR 31, 8 I.

179 Ibid 66 per Rich J.

180 Victoria v Commonwealth (the Payroll Tax case) (1971) 122 CLR 353, 424 per Gibbs J.

181 Commonwealth v Tasmania (the Franklin Dam case) (1983) 46 ALR 625, 703 perMason J.

182 See, for example, the caveat offered by the High Court in its unanimous judgment in Rv Coldham; ex parte Australian Social Welfare Union (1983) 47 ALR 225, 236.

183 Attorney-General (WA) (at the relation ofAnsett Transport Industries (Operations) Pty Ltd) v Australian National Airlines Commission (1976) 138 CLR 492, 530 per Murphy J.

184 As in Airlines of NSW Pty Ltd v New South Wales (No 2) (1965) 113 CLR 54; New South Wales v Commonwealth (the Hospital Benefits case) (1983) 45 ALR 579; and in the judgment of Stephen J in Ansett Transport Industries (Operations) Pty Ltd v Wardley (1980) 142 CLR 237.

185 As in the judgments of Mason and Wilson JJ in Ansett Transport Industries (Operations) Pty Ltd v Wardley (1980) 142 CLR 237; TA Robinson and Sons Pty Ltd v Haylor (1957) 97 CLR 177; and Victoria v Commonwealth (the Shipwrecks case) (1937) 58 CLR 618.

186 (1926) 37 CLR 466.

187 (1930) 43 CLR 472.

188 (1984) 56 ALR I.

189 University of Wollongong v Metwally (1984) 56 ALR I, 21 per Deane J; see also ibid 7 per Gibbs CJ.

190 (1965) 113 CLR 54.

191 (1983) 45 ALR 579.