¹ Winterton, George, ‘The Constitutional Position of Australian State Governors’ in Lee, H P and Winterton, George (eds), Australian Constitutional Perspectives (LawBook, 1992) 274, 333.Google Scholar

² Constitution Act 1902 (NSW) s 24B; Constitution Act 1934 (SA) ss 28, 28A; Constitution Act 1975 (Vic) ss 8, 8A.

³ Constitution (Duration of Parliament) Act 1984 (Vic); Constitution Act Amendment Act 1985 (SA); Constitution (Parliamentary Reform) Act 2003 (Vic). Section 24B of the Constitution Act 1902 (NSW) was inserted following a state referendum in 1995 at which the electorate approved the Constitution (Fixed Term Parliaments) Act 1993 (NSW).

⁴ Constitution Act 1889 (WA) ('WA Constitution Act’) ss 3, 50, 73(2)(a),(e).

⁵ Constitution Act 1867 (Qld) ('Queensland Constitution Act’) ss 11A, 53; Constitution Act Amendment Act 1934 (Qld) s 4.

⁶ Constitution Act 1934 (Tas) ss 23, 41A. Regarding double entrenchment, see Western Australia v Wilsmore (1982) 149 CLR 79, 99–100 (Wilson J); West Lakes Ltd v South Australia (1980) 25 SASR 389, 414 (Zelling J).

⁷ Sharples v Arnison (2001) 160 FLR 194, 206 (Ambrose J); Sharples v Arnison [2002] 2 Qd R 444, 454 (McPherson JA).

⁸ Constitution Act 1902 (NSW) ss 7B, 24B; Constitution Act 1975 (Vic) ss 8, 8A, 18(2).

⁹ No power is conferred to dissolve the Legislative Council.

¹⁰ Taylor, Greg, The Constitution of Victoria (Federation Press, 2006) 326Google Scholar; O'Brien, Denis, The Powers of the Governor-General to Dissolve the Houses of Parliament (LLM Thesis, Australian National University, 1982) 11–12, 168.Google Scholar

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¹² See below n 78–80 and accompanying text.

¹³ The reserve powers are those powers Governors may exercise without, or contrary to, ministerial advice.

¹⁴ Winterton, ‘The Constitutional Position of Australian State Governors', above n 1, 299–301; Boyce, Peter, ‘Reserve Powers of State Governors’ (1994) 24 University of Western Australia Law Review 145, 145–7Google Scholar; Twomey, Anne, The Australia Acts 1986: Australia's Statutes of Independence (Federation Press, 2010) 263, 278.Google Scholar

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¹⁸ R v Pinkstone (2001) 24 WAR 406, 432 (Roberts-Smith J); McGarvie, Richard, ‘The Work and Selection of a Governor: By Election, Parliament or Premier’ (1997) 20 University of New South Wales Law Journal 130, 131Google Scholar; Hanks, Peter, Keyzer, Patrick and Clarke, Jennifer, Australian Constitutional Law: Materials and Commentary (LexisNexis, 7^th ed, 2004) 489.Google Scholar

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²⁰ For the former interpretation of s 7(5), see Hanks, Keyzer and Clarke, above n 18, 489. For the latter interpretation of s 7(5), see Winterton, ‘The Constitutional Position of Australian State Governors', above n 1, 300; Twomey, The Australia Acts 1986, above n 14, 278.

²¹ (2008) 234 CLR 275, 282 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Heydon and Kiefel JJ). The plurality quoted a passage from Morris J in Osland v Department of Justice (General) (2005) 23 VAR 378, where his Honour referred to s 7(5) of the Australia Acts applying to Her Majesty's representatives. Their Honours accepted the relevant passage ‘as accurate and sufficient for present purposes’. Those purposes did not include the question now under consideration.

²² R v Stead [1994] 1 Qd R 665, 669 (Davies, Pincus and McPherson JJA).

²³ O'Meara v McTackett (2000) 172 ALR 342, 345 (Gummow J); Twomey, The Australia Acts 1986, above n 14, 278.

²⁴ Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 13 November 1985, 2686 (Lionel Bowen, Attorney-General).

²⁵ Marquet, Laurence, ‘The Law and Custom of the Parliament of Western Australia, 1890–1990’ in Black, David (ed), The House on the Hill: A History of the Parliament of Western Australia 1832–1990 (Parliament of Western Australia, 1991) 343, 351.Google Scholar

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²⁸ Twomey, The Australia Acts 1986, above n 14, 261.

²⁹ Bignold v Dickson (1991) 23 NSWLR 683, 686, 696 (Kirby P); Greiner v Independent Commission Against Corruption (1992) 28 NSWLR 125, 141, 143 (Gleeson CJ), 169 (Mahoney JA).

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³² Interpretation Act 1918 (WA) s 23. Section 73(2) is interpreted in light of ‘local history and contemporary legislation': Burke v Western Australia [1982] WAR 248, 253 (Burt CJ).

³³ Winterton, ‘The Constitutional Position of Australian State Governors', above n 1, 291; Twomey, Anne, The Constitution of New South Wales (Federation Press, 2004) 223–4.Google Scholar

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⁵¹ Sawer, above n 36, 149. See also Victoria v Commonwealth (1975) 134 CLR 81, 155–6 (Gibbs J).

⁵² Winterton, ‘The Constitutional Position of Australian State Governors', above n 1, 294.

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⁵⁵ Stephens v West Australian Newspapers Ltd (1994) 182 CLR 211, 233–4 (Mason CJ, Toohey and Gaudron JJ), 236 (Brennan J).

⁵⁶ R v Brisbane TV Ltd; Ex parte Criminal Justice Commission (No 2) [1998] 2 Qd R 483, 495–7. See also Carney, Gerard, ‘The Implied Freedom of Political Discussion – Its Impact on State Constitutions’ (1995) 23 Federal Law Review 180, 195–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁵⁸ (1960) 105 CLR 214, 251 (Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Taylor and Windeyer JJ). See also Ryder v Foley (1906) 4 CLR 422, 432–3 (Griffith CJ).

⁵⁹ See Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520, 566–7 (per curiam). See also Adegbenro v Akintola [1963] AC 614, 632.

⁶⁰ Kable v DPP (NSW) (1996) 189 CLR 51, 66 (Brennan CJ); McGinty v Western Australia (1996) 186 CLR 140, 176 (Brennan CJ), 222–3 (Gaudron J). See also Williams, George, ‘Sounding the Core of Representative Democracy: Implied Freedoms and Electoral Reform’ (1996) 20 Melbourne University Law Review 848, 866–7Google Scholar; Wait, Michael, ‘Representative Government under the South Australian Constitution and the Fragile Freedom of Communication of State Political Affairs’ (2008) 29 Adelaide Law Review 247, 259.Google Scholar

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⁶⁴ Constitution Act 1889 (WA) s 75; Constitution Acts Amendment Act 1899 (WA) ss 43, 45. Cf Commonwealth Constitution s 62.

⁶⁵ Constitution Acts Amendment Act 1899 (WA) s 43(3).

⁶⁶ [1982] WAR 241, 245.

⁶⁷ Marquet, Laurence, ‘The Separation of Powers Doctrine and the Constitution of Western Australia’ (1990) 20 University of Western Australia Law Review 445, 446–7.Google Scholar

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⁶⁹ Twomey, Anne, ‘The Entrenchment of the Queen and Governor in the Queensland Constitution’ in White, Michael and Rahemtula, Aladin (eds), Queensland's Constitution: Past, Present and Future (Supreme Court of Queensland Library, 2010) 185, 210.Google Scholar

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⁷² (1992) 28 NSWLR 125, 144 (emphasis added). See also Lindell, Responsible Government and the Australian Constitution, above n 54, 7.

⁷³ Egan v Willis (1996) 40 NSWLR 650, 660 (Gleeson CJ); Egan v Chadwick (1999) 46 NSWLR 563, 568 (Spigelman CJ); Re Patterson; Ex parte Taylor (2001) 207 CLR 391, 403 (Gleeson CJ).

⁷⁴ Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520, 567 (per curiam).

⁷⁵ (2009) 259 ALR 86, 98.

⁷⁶ Ibid 99.

⁷⁷ Lindell, ‘Responsible Government', above n 71, 85.

⁷⁸ Sharples v Arnison (2001) 160 FLR 194, 206 (Ambrose J); Sharples v Arnison [2002] 2 Qd R 444.

⁷⁹ (2009) 222 FLR 417, 428, 430.

⁸⁰ (1981) 151 CLR 170, 265.

⁸¹ Bignold v Dickson (1991) 23 NSWLR 683, 686 (Kirby P). See Winterton, Parliament, the Executive and the Governor-General, above n 34, 212–3.

⁸² Of course, it may be that other refusals have occurred but this fact has not been made public: Twomey, The Constitution of New South Wales, above n 33, 648. In 1904, 1905 and 1909 the Governor-General refused requests from the Prime Minister to dissolve the House of Representatives.

⁸³ Evatt, HV, ‘The Discretionary Authority of Dominion Governors’ (1940) 18 Canadian Bar Review 1, 1.Google Scholar See also Markesinis, BS, The Theory and Practice of Dissolution of Parliament (Cambridge University Press, 1972) 85–6.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Markesinis, above n 83, 120; Winterton, George, Monarchy to Republic: Australian Republican Government (Oxford University Press, revised ed, 1994), 49.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Forsey, The Royal Power of Dissolution of Parliament in the British Commonwealth, above n 11, 268; Lumb, RD, The Constitutions of the Australian States (University of Queensland Press, 5^th ed, 1991) 74–5.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Paul, JB, ‘Governors and Politicians: the Australian States principally in the 1940s and 1950s’ in Low, DA (ed), Constitutional Heads and Political Crises: Commonwealth Episodes, 1945–1985 (MacMillan, 1988) 37, 48, 53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Lumb characterised Sir Dallas Brooks’ course of action as ‘proper': Lumb, The Constitutions of the Australian States, above n 85, 75, 82.

⁸⁷ SirKerr, John, Matters for Judgment (MacMillan, 1978) 410CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Twomey, The Constitution of New South Wales, above n 33, 647.

⁸⁸ Craig, WH, ‘The Governor's Reserve Powers in Relation to the Dissolution of the Tasmania House of Assembly’ (1960) 1 Tasmanian University Law Review 488, 493–4Google Scholar; Enid Campbell, ‘The Prerogative Power of Dissolution: Some Recent Tasmanian Precedents’ [1961] Public Law 165, 174–6. See also Evatt, ‘The Discretionary Authority of Dominion Governors', above n 83, 9.

⁸⁹ See generally Harris, MC and Crawford, JR, ‘The Powers and Authorities Vested in Him: The Discretionary Authority of State Governors and the Power of Dissolution’ (1969) 3 Adelaide Law Review 303, 323.Google Scholar There is considerable disagreement about the criteria governing this reserve power's exercise: Winterton, Parliament, the Executive and the Governor-General, above n 34, 212–3.

⁹⁰ Bignold v Dickson (1991) 23 NSWLR 683, 696 (Kirby P); Forsey, The Royal Power of Dissolution of Parliament in the British Commonwealth, above n 11, 268.

⁹¹ Keith, AB, The Sovereignty of the British Dominions (MacMillan, 1929) 247.Google Scholar It is unclear whether Keith was referring to legal or political compulsion. As a matter of political convention, this is the accepted position. Otherwise, a government could use a series of repeated dissolutions to ultimately defeat the electors’ will: Evatt, H V, The King and His Dominion Governors (Oxford University Press, 1936) 109.Google Scholar

⁹² See Lindell, ‘Book Review’, above n 49, 268. Cf SirBarwick, Garfield, Sir John Did His Duty (Serendip Publications, 1983).Google Scholar

⁹³ Winterton, Monarchy to Republic, above n 84, 51.

⁹⁴ Forsey, The Royal Power of Dissolution of Parliament in the British Commonwealth, above n 11, 60–4, 261; Winterton, ‘The Constitutional Position of Australian State Governors', above n 1, 321.

⁹⁵ See Forsey, The Royal Power of Dissolution of Parliament in the British Commonwealth, above n 11, 71; Harris and Crawford, above n 89, 311; Thomson, ‘Reserve Powers of the Crown', above n 43, 424; Winterton, ‘The Constitutional Position of Australian State Governors', above n 1, 293.

⁹⁶ Santow, GFK, ‘Guaranteeing Supply – “The Ghost in the Machine“’ (1996) 7 Public Law Review 8, 12Google Scholar; McGarvie, above n 18, 135–6.

⁹⁷ (2001) 160 FLR 194, 198.

⁹⁸ SirBrennan, Gerard, ‘Reserve Powers in a Republican Constitution’ (2004) 7(3) Constitutional Law and Policy Review 49, 51.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ SirBarwick, Garfield, A Radical Tory: Garfield Barwick's Reflections and Recollections (Federation Press, 1995), 289, 294.Google Scholar The last monarch to dissolve the United Kingdom Parliament without ministerial advice seems to have been William III in 1701: Markesinis, above n 83, 61.

¹⁰⁰ Keith, AB, Selected Speeches and Documents on British Colonial Policy: 1763–1917 (Humphrey Milford, 1918) 136.Google Scholar

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¹⁰³ Winterton, ‘1975: The Dismissal of the Whitlam Government', above n 36, 241. See also Sawer, above n 36, 226 (noting that in Australia neither statute nor the common law requires a ministerial countersignature for the valid execution of vice-regal acts and that ministerial countersignatures are included to protect vice-regal representatives from political involvement).

¹⁰⁴ Keith, Selected Speeches and Documents on British Colonial Policy, above n 100, 136; Howard, Colin and Saunders, Cheryl, Cases and Materials on Constitutional Law (LawBook Co, 1979) 124.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ See Winterton, Monarchy to Republic, above n 84, 51. Cf Forsey, The Royal Power of Dissolution of Parliament in the British Commonwealth, above n 11, 270.

¹⁰⁶ (1839) 112 ER 1112, 1128.

¹⁰⁷ Western Australia, Parliamentary Debates, Legislative Assembly, 22 March 1978, 308 (Sir Charles Court, Premier).

¹⁰⁸ See Forsey, The Royal Power of Dissolution of Parliament in the British Commonwealth, above n 11, 7; Winterton, ‘The Constitutional Position of Australian State Governors', above n 1, 294.

¹⁰⁹ Forsey, Eugene, ‘Extension of the Life of Legislatures’ (1960) 26 Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science 604, 608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See, eg, Legislative Assembly Duration Act 1919 (WA).

¹¹⁰ See Evatt, The King and His Dominion Governors, above n 91, 293; Kerr, above n 87, 215.

¹¹¹ Constitution Act Amendment Act 1934 (Qld) s 4.

¹¹² The Assembly's duration has been altered several times: Constitution Act 1889 (WA) s 14; Constitution Acts Amendment Act 1899 (WA) s 21(1); Legislative Assembly Duration Act 1919 (WA); Acts Amendment (Electoral Reform) Act 1987 (WA) s 12.

¹¹³ Nicholas v Western Australia [1972] WAR 168, 173 (Jackson CJ).

¹¹⁴ (1930) 31 SR (NSW) 181, 209 (emphasis added).

¹¹⁵ [1943] OR 501.

¹¹⁶ [1943] OR 319, 329 affd R (ex rel Tolfree) v Clark [1943] OR 501. Hope J noted that a Lieutenant-Governor may also refuse assent to a bill prolonging Parliament's duration: [1943] OR 319, 328. In Durham Holdings Pty Ltd v New South Wales, Kirby J raised the possibility that the Governor may refuse assent to a law that clearly offends basic constitutional norms: (2001) 205 CLR 399, 432 n 215 (Kirby J). If such a reserve power exists it may provide an alternative to the Governor dissolving Parliament if Parliament attempted to extend its duration. But see Winterton, ‘The Constitutional Position of Australian State Governors', above n 1, 294 (suggesting there is no reserve power to refuse assent to bills).

¹¹⁷ [1955] 1 FCR 155 quoted in SirJennings, Ivor, Constitutional Problems in Pakistan (Greenwood Press, 1957) 86.Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ See Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106, 138 (Mason CJ); McGinty v Western Australia (1996) 186 CLR 140, 230 (McHugh J). It has been suggested that the length of prolongation is immaterial: Carter, BPC, The Powers of the Australian and New Zealand Governors-General (LLB(Hons) Thesis, University of Auckland, 1977) 183.Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ See Boyce, above n 14, 147.

¹²⁰ See generally Sawer, above n 36, chs 8, 9; Kerr, above n 87, chs 17–22; Barwick, Sir John Did His Duty, above n 92; Whitlam, Gough, ‘The Coup 20 years after’ in Coper, Michael and Williams, George (eds), Power, Parliament and the People (Federation Press, 1997) 136.Google Scholar

¹²¹ See Winterton, Parliament, the Executive and the Governor-General, above n 34, 158.

¹²² Constitution Act 1902 (NSW) s 24B.

¹²³ Constitution Act 1902 (NSW) s 24B(4).

¹²⁴ Constitution Act 1975 (Vic) s 8A.

¹²⁵ Constitution Act 1934 (SA) ss 28A(1)(a)–(b). See Selway, Bradley, The Constitution of South Australia (Federation Press, 1997) 38–9.Google Scholar

¹²⁶ See Constitution Act 1934 (SA) ss 28A(1)(d), 41; Constitution Act 1975 (Vic) ss 8(3)(b), 65E. See also Constitution Act 1934 (SA), s 28A(1)(c).

¹²⁷ Waugh, John, ‘Australia's State Constitutions, Reform and the Republic’ (1996) 3 Agenda 59, 63Google Scholar; Twomey, The Constitution of New South Wales, above n 33, 649.

¹²⁸ See above n 79–80 and accompanying text.

¹²⁹ Castles, Alex and Harris, Michael, Lawmakers and Wayward Whigs: Government and Law in South Australia 1836–1986 (LawBook, 1987) 259Google Scholar; Carney, The Constitutional Systems of the Australian States and Territories, above n 46, 280. See Constitution Act 1934 (SA) s 28A.

¹³⁰ See Constitution Act 1902 (NSW), s 24B(5).

¹³¹ Twomey, The Constitution of New South Wales, above n 33, 659.

¹³² Hasluck J's reference to ‘substantive constitutional reality’ in Glew v Governor of Western Australia (2009) 222 FLR 417 was in the context of changes in legislation's terminology from ‘Queen’ and ‘Governor’ to ‘State of Western Australia'. Similarly, Queensland's Crown Solicitor advised the Legal, Constitutional and Administrative Review Committee, regarding a provision similar to s 73(2) in the Constitution Act 1867 (Qld), that for an Act to ‘affect’ any of the entrenched sections it would have to change its meaning in some way. Accordingly, substituting the word ‘State’ for ‘colony’ would not affect the entrenched sections: Legal, Constitutional and Administrative Review Committee, Parliament of Queensland, Consolidation of the Queensland Constitution: Final Report (1999) 12.

¹³³ See Constitution Act 1889 (WA) ss 2, 3, 50, 73(2)(a), (e); Thomson, James, ‘Western Australia’ (1992) 3 Public Law Review 66, 71.Google Scholar

¹³⁴ Twomey, The Constitution of New South Wales, above n 33, 650.

¹³⁵ Ibid.

¹³⁶ Constitution Act 1889 (WA) ss 50(2), 73(2)(a), (e); Constitution Act 1867 (Qld) ss 11A(2), 53.

¹³⁷ Sharples v Arnison [2002] 2 Qd R 444, 454 (McPherson JA).

¹³⁸ Sharples v Arnison (2001) 160 FLR 194, 207 (Ambrose J).

¹³⁹ Sharples v Arnison (2001) 160 FLR 194, 206 (Ambrose J); Sharples v Arnison [2002] 2 Qd R 444, 454 (McPherson JA).

¹⁴⁰ The dissolution power has been described as ‘undoubtedly the most important’ constitutional power conferred on Governors: Encel, Solomon, Cabinet Government in Australia (Melbourne University Press, 1962) 74.Google Scholar

¹⁴¹ Constitution Act 1867 (Imp) 30 & 31 Vict, c 3, s 92(1); Constitution Act 1982, s 45.

¹⁴² [1987] 2 SCR 2, 46. See also Forsey, ‘Extension of the Life of Legislatures', above n 109, 609.

¹⁴³ Egan v Willis (1998) 195 CLR 424, 494 (Kirby J); Australian Broadcasting Corporation v Lenah Game Meats Pty Ltd (2001) 208 CLR 199, 281–2 (Kirby J). See Commonwealth Constitution, ss 12, 15, 21, 84, 110.

¹⁴⁴ (1913) 16 CLR 404, 458 (emphasis added). See also McGinty v Western Australia (1996) 186 CLR 140, 292 (Gummow J).

¹⁴⁵ Spigelman, Chief Justice, ‘Public Law and the Executive’ (2010) 34 Australian Bar Review 10, 22.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁶ Pritchard, Janine, ‘Monarchical States under a Republican Commonwealth’ in Murray, Sarah (ed), Constitutional Perspectives on an Australian Republic (Federation Press, 2010) 106, 108.Google Scholar Contra Lumb, RD, ‘The Framework of Constitutional Monarchy in the Australian States’ in Grainger, Gareth and Jones, Kerry (eds), The Australian Constitutional Monarchy (ACM Publishing, 1994) 57, 62.Google Scholar States must simply have an office fitting the description ‘chief executive officers or administrator’ to discharge the duties and exercise the powers conferred on the ‘Governor of a State’ under the Commonwealth Constitution.

¹⁴⁷ (2001) 207 CLR 391, 460.

¹⁴⁸ Clayton v Heffron [1961] SR (NSW) 768, 830 (Herron J).

¹⁴⁹ Commonwealth Aluminium Company v A-G (Qld) [1976] Qd R 231, 248 (Hoare J). See also Taylor, The Constitution of Victoria, above n 10, 493.

¹⁵⁰ Professor Twomey suggests that laws respecting the Governor are unrelated to Parliament: Twomey, Anne, ‘Manner and Form Limitations on the Power to Amend State Constitutions’ (2004) 15 Public Law Review 182, 184.Google Scholar

¹⁵¹ Westco Lagan Ltd v A-G (NZ) [2001] 1 NZLR 40, 69 (McGechan J).

¹⁵² Australia Acts 1986 (Cth) & (UK) ss 3(2), 5(b), 6, 8, 16(2).

¹⁵³ Cf R (Jackson) v A-G [2006] 1 AC 261, 296.

¹⁵⁴ Goldsworthy, Jeffrey, ‘Manner and Form in the Australian States’ (1987) 16 Melbourne University Law Review 403, 412.Google Scholar See also Twomey, The Australia Acts 1986, above n 14, 244.

¹⁵⁵ Cf A-G (NSW) v Rennie [1896] AC 376, 379: ‘according to the ordinary use of the term “Legislative Assembly” it means the Assembly created by the Constitution Act'.

¹⁵⁶ A State Parliament's ability to alter the definition of ‘Parliament’ in the Constitution Act may be limited by the existence of a valid and binding manner and form provision entrenching the definition provision. See, eg, Constitution Act 1889 (WA) ss 2(2), 73(2)(e); Constitution Act 1867 (Qld) ss 2A, 53.

¹⁵⁷ Goldsworthy, above n 154, 413.

¹⁵⁸ Ibid; See also Twomey, The Australia Acts 1986, above n 14, 243. Similar suggestions existed regarding the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865 (Imp): Taylor v A-G (Qld) (1917) 23 CLR 457, 468 (Barton J), 474 (Isaacs J), 477 (Gavan Duffy and Rich JJ), 481 (Powers J). Conversely, O'Brien opined that the Australia Acts abolished a constitutional guarantee of a minimum requirement of democratic government at the State level by repealing the Colonial Laws Validity Act and its reference to a ‘representative legislature': O'Brien, Bernard, ‘The Australia Acts’ in Ellinghaus, MP, Bradbrook, AJ and Duggan, AJ (eds), The Emergence of Australian Law (Butterworths, 1989) 337, 350.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁹ See Craven, Gregory, ‘A Few Fragments of State Constitutional Law’ (1990) 20 University of Western Australia Law Review 353, 364Google Scholar; Gageler, Stephen and Leeming, Mark, ‘An Australian Republic: Is a Referendum Enough?’ (1996) 7 Public Law Review 143, 153.Google Scholar CfWinterton, George, ‘An Australian Republic’ (1988) 16 Melbourne University Law Review 467, 479.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁰ Re Scully (1937) 32 Tas LR 3, 37 (Clark J); Eastgate v Rozzoli (1990) 20 NSWLR 188, 193 (Kirby P).

¹⁶¹ Constitution Act 1934 (SA) s 4. See Gilbertson v South Australia (1976) 15 SASR 66, 114 (Zelling J); West Lakes Ltd v South Australia (1980) 25 SASR 389, 415 (Zelling J); Campbell, Enid, ‘Royal Assent to Bills’ (2003) 14 Public Law Review 9, 10Google Scholar; Lindell, Geoffrey, ‘Royal Assent to South Australian Legislation’ (2003) 14 Public Law Review 137, 137–9Google Scholar; Anne Twomey, ‘The Refusal or Deferral of Royal Assent’ [2006] Public Law 580, 586.

¹⁶² Carney, Gerard, ‘Republicanism and State Constitutions’ in Stephenson, MA and Turner, Clive (eds), Republic or Monarchy?: Legal and Constitutional Issues (University of Queensland Press, 1994) 183, 199Google Scholar; Williams, George, ‘The Australian States and an Australian Republic’ (1996) 70 Australian Law Journal 890, 895–6Google Scholar; Twomey, Anne, ‘State Constitutions in an Australian Republic’ (1997) 23(2) Monash University Law Review 312, 313–4Google Scholar; Fetter, Joel, ‘Unilateral State Republicanism: Can Victoria Independently Sever Its Link with the Crown?’ (2000) 4 Macarthur Law Review 87, 92–3Google Scholar; Twomey, Anne, ‘One In, All In — The Simultaneous Implementation of a Republic at Commonwealth and State Levels’ in Murray, Sarah (ed), Constitutional Perspectives on an Australian Republic (Federation Press, 2010) 20, 22–3.Google Scholar CfWinterton, George, ‘The States and a Republic: A Constitutional Accord?’ (1995) 6 Public Law Review 107, 121.Google Scholar

¹⁶³ Selway, The Constitution of South Australia, above n 125, 46.

¹⁶⁴ Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865 (Imp), s 1; Re Scully (1937) 32 Tas LR 3, 37–8 (Clark J).

¹⁶⁵ See, eg, Stephens v West Australian Newspapers Ltd (1994) 182 CLR 211, 232–3 (Mason CJ, Toohey and Gaudron JJ); A-G (WA) v Marquet (2003) 217 CLR 545, 572 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ).

¹⁶⁶ Re Scully (1937) 32 Tas LR 3, 33 (Clark J); Taylor, The Constitution of Victoria, above n 10, 199. See also Todd, Alpheus, Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies (Longmans, Green & Co, 1880) 460–4.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁷ Hearn, William, The Government of England: Its Structure and Its Development (Longmans, Green & Co, 2^nd ed, 1886) 134.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁸ Taylor v A-G (Qld) (1917) 23 CLR 457, 473 (Isaacs J). See also Twomey, The Constitution of New South Wales, above n 33, 164.

¹⁶⁹ (1917) 23 CLR 457, 473 (Isaacs J), 481 (Powers J agreeing).

¹⁷⁰ Lumb, RD, ‘Fundamental Law and Constitutional Change’ (1978) 9 Federal Law Review 148, 173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁷¹ (1917) 23 CLR 457, 474 (Isaacs J).

¹⁷² A-G (NSW) v Trethowan (1931) 44 CLR 394, 432 (Dixon J); Moore, W Harrison, ‘The Powers of Colonial Legislatures’ (1922) 4 Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law 11, 21–2.Google Scholar

¹⁷³ Taylor v A-G (Qld) (1917) 23 CLR 457, 474 (Isaacs J); Re Scully (1937) 32 Tas LR 3, 40 (Clark J); Clayton v Heffron (1960) 105 CLR 214, 251 (Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Taylor and Windeyer JJ).

¹⁷⁴ (1937) 32 Tas LR 3, 40, 43 (Clark J).

¹⁷⁵ Ibid, 38, 43. See Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865 (Imp) s 1.

¹⁷⁶ See Peter Johnston and Stanley Hotop, ‘Patches on an Old Garment or New Wineskins for New Wine (Constitutional Reform in Western Australia - Evolution or Revolution?) (1990) 20 University of Western Australia Law Review 428, 437: ‘Lord Knutsford commented on the removal of the word “Parliament” from the draft Bill, adding that “it is not strictly accurate to describe [the two Houses], without the Queen, as constituting the Parliament of the Colony“'.

¹⁷⁷ See for an affirmative answer: Carney, Gerard, ‘An Overview of Manner and Form in Australia’ (1989) 5 Queensland University of Technology Law Journal 69, 78.Google Scholar But see Twomey, ‘The Entrenchment of the Queen and Governor in the Queensland Constitution', above n 69, 209: ‘[It is arguable that] it is the Queen who is the constituent part of Parliament. A law that alters the office of her representative … would not appear to amount to a law respecting the constitution, powers or procedure of the Parliament'. See also Wilsmore v Western Australia [1981] WAR 159, 171 (Smith J).

¹⁷⁸ (1937) 32 Tas LR 3, 38.

¹⁷⁹ Constitution Act 1934 (Tas) s 10.

¹⁸⁰ Re Scully (1937) 32 Tas LR 3, 38. See also Re Initiative & Referendum Act [1919] AC 935, 943.

¹⁸¹ Australia Acts 1986 (Cth) & (UK) s 9. But see Twomey, The Australia Acts 1986, above n 14, 294 (discussing the possibility of Her Majesty assenting to a Bill, whilst present in a state, which the Governor has reserved for assent pursuant to s 7(2) of the Australia Acts).

¹⁸² A-G (NSW) v Trethowan (1931) 44 CLR 394, 429 (Dixon J); Commonwealth Aluminium Corporation Ltd v A-G (Qld) [1976] Qd R 231, 237 (Wanstall SPJ), 260 (Dunn J); West Lakes Ltd v South Australia (1980) SASR 389, 420 (Matheson J).

¹⁸³ Twomey, Anne, ‘Keeping the Queen in Queensland — How Effective is the Entrenchment of the Queen and Governor in the Queensland Constitution?’ (2009) 28 University of Queensland Law Journal 81, 95.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁴ Taylor, The Constitution of Victoria, above n 10, 475.

¹⁸⁵ See above n 160-1 and accompanying text. See also Kirmani v Captain Cook Cruises Pty Ltd (No 1) (1985) 159 CLR 351, 455 (Dawson J); Lindell, Geoffrey, ‘Assent or Refusal to Assent to Legislation — On Whose Advice?’ (2009) 11(3) Constitutional Law and Policy Review 126, 130.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁶ Cormack v Cope (1974) 131 CLR 432, 454 (Barwick CJ); Roach v Electoral Commissioner (2007) 233 CLR 162, 226 (Heydon J). See also Marquet, ‘The Law and Custom of the Parliament of Western Australia', above n 25, 351.

¹⁸⁷ This is the position in the United Kingdom: Simpson v A-G (NZ) [1955] NZLR 271, 282 (Stanton and Hutchison JJ); Western Australia v Commonwealth (1975) 134 CLR 201, 238 (Gibbs J), 254 (Stephen J); A-G (WA) v Marquet (2003) 217 CLR 545, 575 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ), 583–4 (Kirby J), 637 (Callinan J). See also West Lakes Ltd v South Australia (1980) 25 SASR 389, 415 (Zelling J).

¹⁸⁸ A-G (WA) v Marquet (2003) 217 CLR 545, 574–6 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ), 583–6 (Kirby J), 637–8 (Callinan J).

¹⁸⁹ Purushothaman v State of Kerala [1962] AIR 694, 759: ‘what is said about the result of prorogation is a fortiori true about the result of dissolution'. See also Simpson v A-G (NZ) [1955] NZLR 271, 283 (Stanton and Hutchison JJ).

¹⁹⁰ Cf Constitution Act 1902 (NSW) s 22F; Twomey, The Constitution of New South Wales, above n 33, 280.

¹⁹¹ (1980) 25 SASR 389, 417.

¹⁹² (1931) 44 CLR 394, 430.

¹⁹³ Lumb, RD, ‘Manner and Form in the Australian Constitutional System Post Australia Acts’ (1991) 12 Queensland Lawyer 177, 181Google Scholar; Selway, The Constitution of South Australia, above n 125, 65–6; Evans, Carolyn, ‘Entrenching Constitutional Reform in Victoria’ (2003) 14 Public Law Review 133, 135.Google Scholar

¹⁹⁴ (2002) 26 WAR 201, 263 (Steytler and Parker JJ) citing Selway, The Constitution of South Australia, above n 125, 65–6.

¹⁹⁵ (2003) 217 CLR 545, 572 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ). See also A-G (NSW) v Trethowan (1931) 44 CLR 394, 429 (Dixon J).

¹⁹⁶ (2003) 217 CLR 545, 573 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ).

¹⁹⁷ A-G (Cth) ex rel McKinlay v Commonwealth (1975) 135 CLR 1, 57 (Stephen J).

¹⁹⁸ (1996) 186 CLR 140, 169 (Brennan CJ), 182–3 (Dawson J), 245 (McHugh J), 269–70 (Gummow J). See also Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520, 567 (per curiam).

¹⁹⁹ (1996) 186 CLR 140, 269–70 (Gummow J).

²⁰⁰ MacLean, Iain, ‘Forms of Representation and Systems of Voting', in Held, David (ed), Political Theory Today (Polity Press, 1991) 172, 173–4.Google Scholar

²⁰¹ Ibid.

²⁰² McGinty v Western Australia (1996) 186 CLR 140, 249–50 (McHugh J). See also Pendal, Phillip, Black, David and Phillips, Harry, Parliament: Mirror of the People? (Parliament of Western Australia, 2007) 71, 149.Google Scholar

²⁰³ Taylor, Greg, ‘Two Refusals of Royal Assent in Victoria’ (2007) 29 Sydney Law Review 85, 127.Google Scholar See also Taylor, The Constitution of Victoria, above n 10, 493.

²⁰⁴ (2003) 217 CLR 545, 573 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ) referring to Clydesdale v Hughes (1934) 51 CLR 518, 528.

²⁰⁵ See McDonald v Cain [1953] VLR 411, 441, 444 (O'Brien J); Wilsmore v Western Australia [1981] WAR 159, 163–4 (Wickham J), 177 (Smith J); Western Australia v Wilsmore (1982) 149 CLR 79, 83 (Gibbs CJ), 85 (Mason J), 102 (Wilson J).

²⁰⁶ (2003) 217 CLR 545, 573 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ) citing Western Australia v Wilsmore (1982) 149 CLR 79, 102.

²⁰⁷ Twomey, The Constitution of New South Wales, above n 33, 279, 342; Twomey, ‘Manner and Form Limitations on the Power to Amend State Constitutions’ above n 150, 185; Carney, The Constitutional Systems of the Australian States and Territories, above n 46, 169.

²⁰⁸ Congdon, Peter, ‘The History, Scope and Prospects of Section 73 of the Constitution Act 1889 (WA)’ (2013) 36(2) University of Western Australia Law Review 83, 106-11.Google Scholar

²⁰⁹ Wilsmore v Western Australia (Unreported, Supreme Court of Western Australia, Brinsden J, 15 February 1980) 23. See also Anonymous, , ‘Review of Legislation’ (1957) 4 University of Western Australia Annual Law Review 452, 455–6Google Scholar; Twomey, The Constitution of New South Wales, above n 33, 330; Taylor, The Constitution of Victoria, above n 10, 473, 475.

²¹⁰ Kenny v Chapman (1861) W & W 93, 100 (Stawell CJ).

²¹¹ See Marquet, Clerk of the Parliaments (WA) v A-G (WA) (2002) 26 WAR 201, 221 (Malcolm CJ), 262 (Steytler and Parker JJ).

²¹² Taylor, ‘Two Refusals of Royal Assent in Victoria', above n 203, 124.

²¹³ (1861) W&W 93, 103.

²¹⁴ Regarding the Legislative Assembly Continuation Act 1916 (NSW), see Twomey, The Constitution of New South Wales, above n 33, 280. Regarding An Act to Shorten the Duration of the Legislative Assembly 1859 (Vic), see Kenny v Chapman (1861) W & W 93, 101 (Stawell CJ); Taylor, ‘Two Refusals of Royal Assent in Victoria', above n 203, 120–30.

²¹⁵ (2003) 217 CLR 545, 562 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ). On the other hand, their Honours considered it ‘necessary to give due weight to the learning that evolved about the operation of the Colonial Laws Validity Act': (2003) 217 CLR 545, 572.

²¹⁶ Kenny v Chapman (1861) W&W 93, 101 (Stawell CJ).

²¹⁷ Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520, 557 (per curiam). See also McGinty v Western Australia (1996) 186 CLR 140, 271 (Gummow J); Roach v Electoral Commissioner (2007) 233 CLR 162, 186 (Gummow, Kirby and Crennan JJ).

²¹⁸ Commonwealth Constitution, s 5 relevantly provides that: ‘The Governor-General may … from time to time, by Proclamation or otherwise … dissolve the House of Representatives'. In Lange, section 5 was not listed amongst the sections of the Constitution giving effect to representative government: (1997) 189 CLR 520, 558.

²¹⁹ See Lindell, Geoffrey, ‘Fixed Term Parliaments: The Proposed Demise of the Early Federal Election’ (1981) 53(1) Australian Quarterly 15, 24CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ratnapala, Suri, Australian Constitutional Law: Foundations and Theory (Oxford University Press, 2^nd ed, 2007) 44–5.Google Scholar

²²⁰ See Roach v Electoral Commissioner (2007) 233 CLR 162, 225–6 (Heydon J).

²²¹ Kenny v Chapman (1861) W & W 93, 101.

²²² Forsey, The Royal Power of Dissolution of Parliament in the British Commonwealth, above n 11, 41.

²²³ Stone, Bruce, ‘Constitutional Design, Accountability and Western Australian Government: Thinking with and against the “WA Inc” Royal Commission’ (1994) 24 University of Western Australia Law Review 51, 63.Google Scholar

²²⁴ Mezey, Michael, ‘Classifying Legislatures’ in Norton, Philip (ed), Legislatures (Oxford University Press, 1990) 149, 153.Google Scholar

²²⁵ Lijphart, Arend, Parliamentary versus Presidential Government (Oxford University Press, 1992) 13.Google Scholar

²²⁶ Western Australia, Parliamentary Debates, Legislative Council, 14 April 2011, 3062 (Norman Moore, Minister for Electoral Affairs).

²²⁷ Western Australia, Parliamentary Debates, Legislative Council, 14 April 2011, 3065.

²²⁸ Western Australia v Wilsmore (1982) 149 CLR 79, 83–4 (Gibbs CJ), 91–2 (Aickin J), 102 (Wilson J). Cf A-G (WA) v Marquet (2003) 217 CLR 545, 562–4, 566 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ); Johnston, Peter, ‘Attorney General (WA) v Marquet: Ramifications for the Western Australian Parliament’ (2005) 20(1) Australasian Parliamentary Review 117, 122.Google Scholar

²²⁹ Electoral Act 1907 (WA) s 64(1), as amended by Electoral and Constitution Amendment Act 2011 (WA) s 5.

²³⁰ Electoral Act 1907 (WA) s 4, as amended by Electoral and Constitution Amendment Act 2011 (WA) s 4.

²³¹ Constitution Acts Amendment Act 1899 (WA) s 21(1).

²³² Electoral Act 1907 (WA) s 64(1), as amended by Electoral and Constitution Amendment Act 2011 (WA) s 5.

²³³ Burt, above n 15, 5. Winterton suggested s 74 of the WA Constitution Act confers a legal power on the Governor to dismiss ministers ‘at pleasure’ when read in the context of Australian constitutionalism and the common law: Winterton, ‘The Constitutional Position of Australian State Governors', above n 1, 286.

²³⁴ See A-G (Ontario) v OPSEU [1987] 2 SCR 2, 46; Sharples v Arnison (2001) 160 FLR 194, 206 (Ambrose J).

²³⁵ (2002) 26 WAR 201, 281.

²³⁶ Ibid.

²³⁷ Johnston, Peter, ‘Method or Madness: Constitutional Perturbations and Marquet's Case’ (2004) 7(2) Constitutional Law and Policy Review 25, 33.Google Scholar

²³⁸ Western Australia, Parliamentary Debates, Legislative Council, 14 November 1991, 6730–1.

²³⁹ Ibid.

²⁴⁰ Ibid.

²⁴¹ Denis O'Brien, above n 10, 73; Richardson, JE, ‘The Executive Power of the Commonwealth’ in Zines, Leslie (ed), Commentaries on the Australian Constitution (Butterworths, 1977) 50, 52 n 4.Google Scholar Richardson argues that at the Commonwealth level, if the Governor-General forcibly dissolved the House of Representatives under s 5 of the Commonwealth Constitution, the Governor-General could legally issue electoral writs without advice notwithstanding s 32 of the Commonwealth Constitution vesting the power to issue writs in the Governor-General in Council.

²⁴² It has been suggested the requirement to issue electoral writs on 11 November 1975 in order to have an election prior to Christmas affected the timing of Sir John Kerr's dismissal of Prime Minister Whitlam and the forced double dissolution in 1975: Whitlam, above n 120, 139. But see Kerr, above n 87, 357–8.

²⁴³ Western Australia, Parliamentary Debates, Legislative Assembly, 22 March 1978, 308 (Sir Charles Court, Premier).

²⁴⁴ Legal, Constitutional and Administrative Review Committee, Parliament of Queensland, Consolidation of the Queensland Constitution: Final Report (1999) 12.

²⁴⁵ Constitution Act 1889 (WA) ss 4, 73(2)(e).

²⁴⁶ Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337, 354 (Brennan CJ and McHugh J); A-G (WA) v Marquet (2003) 217 CLR 545, 568 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ).

²⁴⁷ McCawley v The King [1920] AC 691, 704.

²⁴⁸ [1955] NZLR 271, 275 (Barrowclough CJ), 281 (Stanton and Hutchison JJ agreeing). The High Court of Australia has criticised this distinction: Project Blue Sky Inc v Australian Broadcasting Authority (1998) 194 CLR 355, 374 (Brennan CJ), 390 (McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

²⁴⁹ Cf Twomey, The Constitution of New South Wales, above n 33, 338; Constitution Act 1902 (NSW) s 11A; Parliamentary Electorates and Election Act 1912 (NSW) s 68.

²⁵⁰ Wilsmore v Western Australia [1981] WAR 159, 171.

²⁵¹ Sharples v Arnison (2001) 160 FLR 194, 206 (Ambrose J); Sharples v Arnison [2002] 2 Qd R 444, 454 (McPherson JA).

²⁵² Sharples v Arnison (2001) 160 FLR 194, 206 (Ambrose J); Sharples v Arnison [2002] 2 Qd R 444, 454 (McPherson JA); A-G (Ontario) v OPSEU [1987] 2 SCR 2, 46.

²⁵³ Sharples v Arnison (2001) 160 FLR 194, 206 (Ambrose J).

²⁵⁴ A-G (Cth) ex rel McKinlay v Commonwealth (1975) 135 CLR 1, 50 (Gibbs J); Orr, Graeme, ‘The Voting Rights Ratchet: Rowe v Electoral Commissioner’ (2011) 22 Public Law Review 83, 84.Google Scholar

²⁵⁵ Bernard O'Brien, above n 158, 348–9. See also R v Governor of South Australia (1907) 4 CLR 1497, 1511.

²⁵⁶ R v Governor of South Australia (1907) 4 CLR 1497, 1511.

²⁵⁷ Vardon v O'Loghlin (1907) 5 CLR 201, 209 (Griffith CJ).

²⁵⁸ In Wilsmore v Western Australia, Smith J held that ss 12 and 46 of the WA Constitution Act ‘provi[de] for the establishment of the bicameral parliament': [1981] WAR 159, 171.

²⁵⁹ Twomey, The Constitution of New South Wales, above n 33, 302, 311, 339. See also Carney, The Constitutional Systems of the Australian States and Territories, above n 46, 196.

²⁶⁰ A-G (NSW) v Trethowan (1931) 44 CLR 394, 429 (Dixon J); Carney, The Constitutional Systems of the Australian States and Territories, above n 46, 165.

²⁶¹ See A-G (NSW) v Trethowan (1931) 44 CLR 394, 430 (Dixon J).

²⁶² Ualesi v Ministry of Transport [1980] 1 NZLR 575, 579 (Quilliam J). See also Johnston, Peter, ‘The Legal Personality of the Western Australian Parliament’ (1990) 20 University of Western Australia Law Review 323, 331.Google Scholar Governors may be able to assent to bills that have passed through both houses, following the Assembly's dissolution: see above n 187–9 and accompanying text.

²⁶³ If the EACAA was not validly enacted, the EACAA amendments to s 64 of the Electoral Act would be of no effect. Section 64(1) of the Electoral Act would continue operating, unaffected by the EACAA amendments.

²⁶⁴ A-G (WA) v Marquet (2003) 217 CLR 545, 574 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ).

²⁶⁵ See Western Australia v Wilsmore [1981] WAR 179, 184 (Burt CJ). See also Boath v Wyvill (1989) 85 ALR 621, 636. Regarding Bribery Commissioner v Ranasinghe [1965] AC 172, 197, see Victoria v Commonwealth (1975) 134 CLR 81, 164 (Gibbs J).

²⁶⁶ A-G (WA) v Marquet (2003) 217 CLR 545, 572 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ). For articulation of this argument, see Commonwealth Aluminium Company v A-G (Qld) [1976] Qd R 231, 248 (Hoare J dissenting); Smith v The Queen (1994) 181 CLR 338, 352–3 (Deane J).

²⁶⁷ Twomey, The Constitution of New South Wales, above n 33, 281–2.