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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 January 2025
On 26 February 1982, the Government of the Commonwealth of Australia formally recognised the European Communities (EC) as a subject of public international law and granted accreditation to the Communities’ permanent delegation in Canberra. The delegation had been in place since April 1981. Australian representation in Brussels began in 1960 with a view to maintaining its Commonwealth tariff preference in the United Kingdom upon occasion that the British should decide to join the Common Market. Largely due to concern for the Commonwealth arrangements, the United Kingdom did not join the Common Market until 1973. At this point, the more developed Commonwealth nations were placed behind the Member States of the EC in the line of suppliers of the United Kingdom's import needs. Recognising the mutual desire to minimise the disturbance in an established trade channel, the then Vice-President for External Affairs of the EC Commission, Sir Christopher Soames, visited Canberra and arranged for regular high level consultations to be undertaken to ensure the smooth adaptation and continuation of Australia-EC trade.
International Lawyer with Jones Day Reavis and Pogue, Cleveland, Ohio, USA. The author wishes to thank Professor Eric Stein of the University of Michigan Law School and Dr Massimo Coccia of Universita di Roma Law School for their many helpful suggestions. Responsibility for errors and omissions belongs solely with the author. The law cited herein is available to the author at 1 March, 1985.
1 (1982) 56 ALJ 257.
2 Eur Comm Europe Information “External Relations” Doc No 67/83 2.
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid.
5 For full statistics since 1973 see Eur Comm Doc No 67/83 supra n 2, appendices A through F.
6 Official Journal of the European Communities (hereinafter cited OJ) 1980 L 275/20.
7 OJ 1982 L281/8; earlier agreements to which Australia and the EC are party include: Agreements negotiated under are XXVIII(5) of GATT signed on 27 March 1968, OJ 1968 L258/10 and 15 July 1969, OJ 1970 L54/2; Int’! Convention on the simplification and harmonization of customs procedures (Kyoto Convention), OJ 1975 L 100; various multilateral commodity agreements: Cocoa, OJ 1981 L313/3; Coffee, OJ 1982 L278/25; Textiles, OJ 1982 L83/9; Wheat, OJ 1981 Ll55/25.
8 A still significant minority opinion holds that the EC are but a delegate of the member states any one of whom may unilaterally withdraw its “delegation” of power, even though the treaties do not provide for the possibility of withdrawal, eg comment by Dr Ignaz SeidlHohenveldern at the Amsterdam Colloque in CWA Timmermans and ELM Volker (eds), Division of Powers Between the European Communities and their Member States in The Field of External Relations (1981) 68.
8A This section of the paper is a compact survey of Treaty provisions discussed herein and may be bypassed by readers familiar with the Treaties.
9 Eur Comm Comm’n, Steps to European Unity - Community Progress to Date: A Chronology (4th ed 1983) 7.
10 Treaty Establishing The European Coal and Steel Community signed on 18 April 1951, (hereinafter referred to as the ECSC Treaty) (1957) 261 UNTS 140 reprinted in E Stein, P Hay and Waelbroeck, M, Documents For European Community Law and Institutions in Perspective (1976) 1Google Scholar (hereinafter cited as Stein, Hay, Waelbroeck, Documents).
11 Treaty Establishing The European Economic Community, (hereinafter referred to as the EEC Treaty) (1958) 298 UNTS 11 and Treaty Establishing the European Atomic Energy Commission (hereinafter referred to as the Euratom Treaty) (1958) 298 UNTS 167 both signed on 25 March 1957 reprinted in Stein, Hay, Waelbroech, Documents 40, 206.
12 Documents Concerning the Accession to the European Communities of the Kingdom of Denmark, Ireland, The Kingdom of Norway and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Special Edition OJ Eur Comm 27 March 1982 reprinted in Stein, Hay, Waelbroeck, Documents 275 following a referendum, Norway did not, in the end join.
13 Documents Concerning the Accession of the Hellenic Republic to the European Communities, OJ 1979 L291/1.
14 Convention on Certain Institutions Common to the European Communities, reprinted in Stein, Hay, Waelbroeck, Documents 244 and Treaty Establishing a Single Council and a Single Commission of the European Communities (hereinafter referred to as the Merger Treaty) reprinted in Stein, Hay, Waelbroeck, Documents 245.
15 Although procedural difficulties are resolved in favour of the Treaties of Rome over the Treaty of Paris: E Stein, P Hay and M Waelbroeck, European Community Law and Institutions in Perspective (1976) 3 I.
16 Mathijsen, P, A Guide to European Community Law (3rd ed 1980)Google Scholar for a detailed institutional breakdown; for a critical discussion of the interactive process see Weiler, , “The Community System: The Dual Character of Supranationalism” (1981) 1 Ybk Eur L 267Google Scholar; Stein, E, “The European Community in 1983: A Less Perfect Union” (1983) 20 CML Rev 641.Google Scholar
17 EEC Treaty art 145; Euratom Treaty art 115; P Mathijsen, supra n 16, 33-40, 45-50; E Stein, P. Hay, M. Waelbroeck, European Community Law and Institutions in Perspective (1976) 34-36.
18 ECSC Treaty art 26.
19 Merger Treaty art 4; P Mathijsen, supra nl6, 40-41; E Stein, P Hay, M Waelbroeck supra n 17, 36-37.
20 Merger Treaty art 10.
21 EEC Treaty arts 155, 169, 211; Euratom Treaty arts 124, 141; ECSC Treaty art 8.
22 EEC Treaty art 155; Euratom Treaty art 124; ECSC Treaty art 16.
23 EEC Treaty arts 228, 229, 111, 113; Protocol on Privileges and Immunities of the European Communities art 6, reprinted in Stein, Hay, Waelbroeck, Documents 250; cf EEC Treaty art 238; Euratom Treaty art 101.
24 EEC Treaty arts 165, 167; Euratom Treaty arts 137, 139; ECSC Treaty art 32, see generally Hartley, TC, The Foundations of European Community Law (1981) 26-36.Google Scholar
25 EEC Treaty art 166, Euratom Treaty art 138; ECSC Treaty art 32.
26 Some of these difficulties are usefully highlighted in Zines, L, “The Balancing of Community and National Interests by the European Court” (1973) 5 FL Rev 171, 171-175.Google Scholar
27 See generally TC Hartley, supra n24, 33-36; Ipsen, HP, Europäisches Gemeinschaftsrecht (1972) 370-373Google Scholar translated in Stein, E, Hay, P, Waelbroeck, M, European Community Law and Institutions in Perspective (1976) 133-136.Google Scholar
28 EEC Treaty art 170; Euratom Treaty art 142; ECSC Treaty art 89 para one.
29 EEC Treaty art 169; Euratom Treaty art 141.
30 EEC Treaty art 173 para one; Euratom Treaty art 146 para one; ECSC Treaty art 33 para one.
31 EEC Treaty art 175 para one; Euratom Treaty art 148 para one; ECSC Treaty art 35; this is akin to a writ of mandamus under the Common Law.
32 EEC Treaty arts 228 para one; ECSC Treaty art 95 para four; Merger Treaty art 24 para Jone.
33 EEC Treaty art 173 para two; Euratom Treaty art 146 para two; cfECSC Treaty art 33 para two; the locus standi hurdle culls most suits under this head. Its intricacies are beyond the scope of the present paper; see generally P van Dijk, Judicial Review of Governmental Action and the Requirement of an Interest to Sue (1980) Ch7.
34 EEC Treaty art 175 para three; Euratom Treaty art 148 para three; ECSC Treaty art 35; cf supra n31.
35 EEC Treaty art 181; Euratom Treaty art 153; ECSC Treaty art 42.
36 EEC Treaty art 182; Euratom Treaty art 154; cf ECSC Treaty art 43.
37 eg EEC Treaty arts 7, 14.7, 43.2, 54.1, 54.2, 56.2, 57.1, 57.2, 63.1, 63.2, 75.1, 87.1, 100, 06.3, 126, 127, 133.2, 201, 228.1, 235, 236, 238 are required consultations; on other issues parliament is consulted as a matter of political convention.
38 EEC Treaty art 144.
39 EEC Treaty art 140 para three.
40 EEC Treaty art 203.
41 EEC Treaty art 229.
42 EEC Treaty art 230.
43 EEC Treaty art 231; now the OECD.
44 EEC Treaty arts 232, 233, 234.
45 EEC Treaty art 235.
46 EEC Treaty art 116.
47 But cf ss 52, 90 of the Constitution.
48 (1904) 1 CLR 91.
49 (1819) 4 Wheat 316.
50 Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd (1920) 28 CLR 129, 145.
51 Ibid 154; City of Melbourne v Commonwealth (1947) 74 CLR 31, 83 per J, Dixon; Sawer, G, Australian Federalism in the Courts (1967) 199;Google Scholar Zines, L, The High Court and the Constituion (1981) 11.Google Scholar
52 Ss 106, 107, 108.
53 Melbourne Corporation v Commonwealth (1947) 74 CLR 31.
54 Ibid 75 per Starke CJ.
55 Victoria v Commonwealth (1971) 122 CLR, 353, 382-383 per Barwick CJ, 424 per Gibbs J.
56 Ibid 396.
57 Case 26/62, (1963) ECR l; [1963] CMLR 105.
58 [1963] ECR 6-9.
59 [1963] ECR 12; see Pescatore, P, “The Doctrine of ’Direct Effect’:An Infant Disease of Community Law” (1983) 8 EL Rev 155, 157-158Google Scholar; cf Usher, J, European Community Law and National Law (1981) 13.Google Scholar
60 L Collins, European Community Law in the United Kingdom (1980) 5, citing Advisory Opinion on the Jurisdiction of the Courts of Danzig (1928) PCIJ ser B, No 15 at 4, 17, 18; D Wyatt, “New Legal Order or Qld” (1982) 7 EL Rev 147, 148-150; case 812/79 Attorney-Genera, of Ireland v Burgoa [1981]2 CMLR 193.
61 Waelbroeck, M, Traités Internationaux et Juridictions Internes dans les Pays du Marche Commun (1969) 185-186Google Scholar, cited by Stein, E, “Lawyers, Judges and the Making of a Transnation al Constitution” (1981) 75 AJIL 1, 10 fn 29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
62 [1963] ECR 12.
63 [1963] ECR 19.
64 Ibid 11.
65 Case 20/59 Italy v High Authority of the ECSC [1960] ECR 325, 338-339.
66 [1963] ECR 7.
67 Case 6/64 [1964] ECR 585; [1964] CMLR 425.
68 [1964] ECR 593.
69 Case 106/77 Amminstrazione delle Finanze dello Stato v Simmenthal S p A. [1978] ECR 9.
70 Ibid 644, para 24.
71 Ibid para 23.
72 Below p 000.
73 Polites v Commonwealth (1945) 70 CLR 60, 69; Croft v Dunphy (1933) AC 156, 163-164
74 Ibid; see also Bloxom v Favre (1883) 8 PD IOI, 107.
75 Georgini v Electric Power Transmission Pty Ltd (1962) 80 NSW (WN) 41.
76 D and R Henderson Pty Ltd v Collector of Customs (NSW) (I974) 48 ALJR 132, 135 per Mason J.
77 Chow Hung Ching v R (1948) 77 CLR 449, 461-463, 470-472, 475-477.
78 Case 38/75 Nederlandse Spoorwegen v Inspecteur der invoerrechten en accijnzen [1975] ECR 1439, 1450.
79 Case 181/73 Haegemann v Belgian State [1974] ECR 449, 460; Case 87/75 Bresciani v Amminstrazione Italiana delle Finanze [1976] ECR 129.
80 Petersmann, E, “Application of GATT by the Court of Justice of the European Communities” (1983) 20 CML Rev 397, 401Google Scholar; Meessen, KM, “The Application of Rules of Public International Law Within Community Law” (1976) 13 CML Rev 485, 497-500.Google Scholar
81 Cases 21-24/72 International Fruit Company v Produktschap voor Groenten en Fruit [1972] ECR 1219, 1229; Case 112/80 Dürbeck v Hauptzollamt Frankfurt [1981] ECR 1095, 1120; but cf Case 40/72 Schroeder v Federal Republic of Germany [1973] ECR 125.
82 Case 266/81 Societa Italiana per l’Oleodotto Transalpine v Ministero delle Finanze [1983] ECR 731; cf Bebr, G, “Agreements Concluded By the Community and Their Possil>le Direct Effect: From International Fruit Company to Kupfeberg” (1983)20 CML Rev 35, 46, 73Google Scholar; KM Meessen supra n80, 494-495; Venturini, “Sulla Diretta Applicabilita delle norme del GATT” (to be published in Rivista di Diritto Internazionale 1984) at 27 (translated for the author by Dr Massimo Coccia).
83 14 Hertlset’s Com TS 1234 (1874).
84 15 Hertslet’s Com TS 460 (1876).
85 Colonial Conf 1887 56 Papers presented to Parliament by Command of Her Majesty 461ff
86 Eg Treaties of Commerce between Great Britain and
- Italy (1883), 15 Hertslet’s Com TS 776 art 19, SA did not accede
- Greece (1886), 17 Hertslet’s Com TS 757 art 17, NSW did not accede
- Honduras (1887), 21 Hertslet’s Com TS 660 art 14, All States acceded
- Mexico (1888), 18 Hertslet’s Com TS 855 art 14, NSW did not accede
- Egypt (1889), 18 Hertslet’s Com TS 379 art 15, Only Qld and Tas acceded
- Muscat (1891), 19 Hertslet’s Com TS 745 art 21, Only Qld acceded
- Bulgaria (1897), 20 Hertslet’s Com TS 201 art 5, All States acceded
87 Eg Anglo-Spanish Commercial Modus Vivendi of 1890, 19 Hertslet’s Com TS 843
- Protocol of 1897 to the Anglo-Japanese Commercial Treaty of 1894, 24 Hertslet’s Com TS 6941
- Commercial Treaties of Great Britain with:
- El Salvador (1886) 21 Hertslet’s Com TS 929
- Uruguay (1899), 17 Hertslet’s Com TS 1120
- Honduras (1900), 89 Brit & Foreign St Papers 1121
- Greece (1904), 98 Brit & Foreign St Papers 53
- Liberia (1908), 101 Brit & Foreign St Papers 194
- Sweden (1911), 104 Brit & Foreign St Papers 202
- Colombia (1912), 105 Brit & Foreign St Papers 266
- Denmark (1912), 105 Brit & Foreign St Papers 267
- France (1912), 105 Brit & Foreign St Papers 271
- Costa Rica (1913), 106 Brit & Foreign St Papers 754
- Norway (1913), 106 Brit & Foreign St Papers 807
- Switzerland (1914), 107 Brit & Foreign St Papers 564.
88 Colonial Conference 1907, 55 Papers presented to Parliament by Command of He1 Majesty, 41-42; interestingly, this last step was only formalised after Federation.
89 Official Records of the Debates of the Australiasian Federal Convention, Second Session, Sydney 2-24 September 1897, (1897) 239-240.
90 Ibid 239 per Edmund Barton (later to be Prime Minister of Australia); NSW, Common wealth of Australia (Draft Constitution Bill), Report of the Debates in the Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council 12 May to 26 August 1897 (1897) 959-977. Thomson, JA, “A Unite States Guide to Constitutional Limitation Upon Treaties as a Source of Australian Municipa Law” (1977) 13 UWAL Rev 110, 120-122.Google Scholar
91 28 and 29 Viet c 63 (1865).
92 85 Parl Deb (HL) (4th ser) 578-579 (1900) (1892-1908).
93 JG Starke, “The Commonwealth in International Affairs” in R Else-Mitchell (ed), Essays on The Australian Constitution (2nd ed 1961) 343, 346.
94 Commonwealth of Australia, Parliamentary Papers No 18 of 1903 cited by G Docker. The Treaty-Making Power in the Commonwealth of Australia (1966) 40, 41.
95 NSW v Commonwealth (The Seas and Submerged Lands case) (1975) 135 CLR 337;(1975)8 ALR I.
96 Letter of 2 December 1907 from Crown Law Officers to the Colonial Office, reprinted in McNair, AD, Law of Treaties (1961) 644-648.Google Scholar
97 Report of The Royal Commission on the Federal Court in 1927 (1929) and Proceedings and Minutes of Evidence (1927) 97, 98, 189, 1249.
98 Bailey, , “Australia and the International Labour Conventions” (1946)54 International Labour Rev 290Google Scholar; cf G Doeker, supra n94, 234.
99 The Summary of Proceedings of the Imperial Conference of 1926 (Cmd. 2768) in AB Keith, Selected Speeches and Documents on British Colonial Policy (1933) 161-170.
100 Cf A-G for Canada v A-G for Ontario (Canadian Labour Conventions case) [1937] AC 326 (PC) per Atkin LJ.
101 NSW v Commonwealth (1975) 135 CLR 337.
102 Ibid 360 per Barwick CJ, 470 per Mason J, 497 per Jacobs J, 502-504 per Murphy J.
103 Ibid 373; cf Bonser v La Macchia (1969) 122 CLR 177, 185, 222; Commonwealth v Queensland (1975) 134 CLR 298, 335-337; Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen (1982) 39 ALR 417, 469.
104 NSW v Commonwealth supra n101, 351, 364-365 per Barwick CJ, 377 per McTiernan J, 475-476 per Mason J, 503 per Murphy J.
105 Transcript, Press Conference by Prime Minister Fraser 21 October 1977 cited by Burmester, H, “The Australian States and Participation in Foreign Policy” (1978) 9 FL Rev. 257, 281.Google Scholar
106 The representatives are stationed as follows:
London – all states
Tokyo – all but Tasmania
New York – New South Wales only
Bonn - New South Wales and Victoria
Hong Kong, Djakarta, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur - South Australia only; see H Burmester, supra nl05, 273.
107 The Melbourne Herald, 30 November 1950.
108 EEC Treaty art 210; Euratom Treaty art 184; ECSC Treaty art 6.
109 Above p 254.
110 Feld, , “The Competences of the European Communities for the Conduct of External Relations” (1965) 43 Tex L Rev 891.Google Scholar
111 Euratom Treaty art 101.
112 Above p 258-259.
113 Wellenstein, E, “Twenty-Five Years of European Community External Relations” (1979) 16 CML Rev 407, 408.Google Scholar
114 Ibid 409.
115 Above p 258-259.
116 ECSC Treaty arts 6,8 and Convention on the Transitional Provisions art 14; Nascimbene, , “The Treaty-Making Power of the European Communities” (1975) 15 Rivista di Diritto Europeo 3, 4-5Google Scholar; E Wellenstein, supra nll3, 409.
117 Ibid 410.
118 Ibid.
119 Supra n7.
120 E Wellenstein, supra n113, 411.
121 There appears to be no problem as a matter of public international law.
122 Euratom Treaty art 103 para three.
123 Ruling 1/78 on the Draft Convention of the International Atomic Energy Agency on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials, Facilities and Transports [1978] ECR 2151; for a summary of the Court’s conclusions to a lengthy judgement see TC Hartley supra n24, 168-169.
124 Below p 279-280.
125 EEC Treaty arts 19,110,111.
126 EEC Treaty art 113. CCP governs international trade issues.
127 EEC Treaty art 116; JA Winter, “Annotation on Case 22/70 Re ERTA Commission of the EC v Council of the EC” (1911)8 CML Rev 550, 555-556.
128 Costonis, J, “The Treaty Making Power of the European Economic Community: The Perspectives of a Decade” (1968)5 CML Rev 421, 426-427Google Scholar; efFdd supra nl 10; Noel, , “The External Relations of the EEC and its Internal Problems” (1975)10 Government and Opposition 159, 160-161.Google Scholar
129 J Costonis, supra nl28, 444.
130 Dupuy, , “Du Charactere Unitarie de la CEE dans ses Relations Exterieures” (1963) Ann Fran Dr Int’l 799, 805-807Google Scholar cited by Costonis, supra nl28, 444.
131 Megret, , “Le Pouvoir de la CEE de Conclure des Accords Internationaux” (1964) RMC, 514Google Scholar cited by J Costonis, supra nl28, 444.
132 Supra n14.
133 Art 3(b).
134 supra nl26.
135 Goods and Services; but cf EEC Treaty art 59 para two.
136 Tallec, G Le, “The Common Commercial Policy of the EEC” (1971)20 Int’! and Comp L Q 732, 738CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kapteyn, P, “The Common Commercial Policy of the European Economic Community: Delimitation of the Community’s Power and the European Court of Justice’s Opinion of November 11.1975” (1976) 11 Tex Int’l L J 485, 494.Google Scholar
137 Ibid.
138 [1976]1 CMLR 85; [1975] ECR 1355.
139 Ibid 91.
140 [1979] ECR 2871.
141 Ibid 2896.
142 Cf Burrows, “The Effects of the Main Cases of the Court of Justice in the Field of External Competences on the Conduct of Member States” in C Timmermans and E Völker, supra n8, 111, 117.
143 Supra n140, 2887-2892.
144 Ibid 2883-2887.
145 A description often utilised by Murphy J of the High Court of Australia, below p 291
146 Supra nl40, 2917.
147 Barav, “The Division of External Relations Power Between The European Economic Community and the Member States in the Case Law of the Court of Justice” in C Timmermans and E Völker supra n8, 29, 41.
148 Ibid para 56; Steenbergen, J, “The Common Commercial Policy” (1980) 17 CML Rev 229, 232.Google Scholar
149 Eg Le Mesurier v Connor (1929)42 CLR 481,497.
150 J Steenbergen, supra nl48, 236-237.
151 EC Council Regulation No 3000/75, 17 November 1975, OJ 1975, L 304/1; P Kapteyn, supra nl36, 489; Separate but similar regimes operate under the ECSC and Euratom treaties with respect to coal and steel and atomic energy.
152 “Sanktionen gegen Iran? Die EG hat schon die Instrumente Dazu?”. Die Welt 14 April 1980; PJ Kuyper, “Community Sanctions Against Argentina: Lawfulness under Community and International Law,” in O’Keefe, D and Schermers, H. G. (eds) Essays in European Law and Integration (1982) 141.Google Scholar
153 Re the role of the EPC see Stein, E, “European Political Cooperation as a Component of the European Foreign Affairs System” (1983)42 Zäo RV; 49Google Scholar Contra, Kuyper, PJ, “Sanctions Against Rhodesia. The EEC and the Implementation of General International Legal Rules” (1975)12 CML Rev 231, 238Google Scholar; Gablentz, O von der, “Luxembourg Revisited or The Importance of European Political Cooperation” (1979) 16 CML Rev 685.Google Scholar
154 S 5l(i); s 5l(vi); s 5l(xxix).
155 EEC Reg No 596/82, OJ 1982 L 72.
156 Ibid art 2.
157 PJ Kuyper, supra n152, 146-147; CWA Timmermans and ELM Völker (eds) supra n8, 140-141 per Bourgeois, 141 per Lachman, contra 142 per Fischer.
158 PJ Kuyper, supra nl52, 148.
159 Ibid 150.
160 Case 22/70 Commission v Council, Re the European Road Transport Agreement (ERTA) [1971] CMLR 335; [1971] ECR 263.
161 J Costonis, supra nl28, 444.
162 [1971] CMLR 335; [1971] ECR 263.
163 E Stein, supra n61, 22.
164 EEC Council Reg No 543/69, OJ 1969 L77; OJ 1970 Special Ed 1.
165 EEC Treaty art 75.
166 EEC Council Reg No 543/69 OJ 1%9 L77; OJ 1970 Special Ed 1.
167 Case 22/70 Commission v Council, Re the European Road Transport Agreement [1971] CMLR 335, 346.
168 Ibid 347. This fear has been realised according to JHJ Bourgeois in Timmermans and Völker (eds) supra n8, 97, 177.
169 Ibid 350.
170 Ibid 351.
171 Euratom Treaty art 101.
172 Case 26/62 [1963] ECR 1.
173 Case 6/64 Costa v ENEL [1964] ECR 585; [1964] CMLR 425.
174 Above pp 261 and 263.
175 E Stein, supra n61, 26.
176 Burrows, supra nl42, 113 cf Case 6/64 Costa v ENEL [1964] ECR 585; [1964] CMLR 425.
177 Case 22/70 Commission v Council, Re the European Road Transport Agreement (ERTA) [1971] CMLR 335, 354-355; [1971] ECR 263, 274.
178 Ibid.
179 Joined cases 3, 4 and 6/76 Cornelis Kramer and others [1976] ECR 1279; Koers, AW, “The External Authority of the EEC In Regard to Marine Fisheries” (1977) 14 CML Rev 269.Google Scholar
180 Ibid.
181 EEC Treaty arts 3(d), 43 and Act of Accession of the United Kingdom, Denmark and Ireland, supra nl2, art 102.
182 Joined cases 3, 4 and 6/76 Cornelis Kramer and others [1976] ECR 1279, 1309
183 [1977] ECR 741; [1977] 2 CMLR 279; Hardy, M, “Opinion 1/76 of the Court of Justice The Rhine Case and the Treaty Making Powers of the Community” (1977) 14 CML Rev 561 584-585.Google Scholar
184 [1977] 2 CMLR 279, 295; [1977] ECR 741, 756. [emphasis added].
184a A Winter, “Annotation on Case 22/70 Re ERTA Commission of the EC v Council of th EC” (1971) 8 CML Rev 550, 556.
185 Cf Euratom Treaty art 203.
186 [1971] CMLR 335, 362.
187 Eg EEC Council Reg No 802/68, 27 June 1968, on the Common Definition of the Concept of the Origin of Goods, OJ 1968-69 L148/1, 11 OJ (Special English edition) 165 a.mended by EEC Council Reg 1318/71, 21 June 1971, OJ 1971 L139/6 EEC Council Reg 1224/80 of May 28, 1980, OJ 1980 L134/1 (Customs Valuation Code); EEC Council Reg 3000/79, 20 December 1979, OJ 1979 L 342 (Common Customs Tariff).
188 Mastellone, C, “The External Relations of the E.E.C. in the Field of Environment Protection” (1981) 30 ICLQ 104, 111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
189 Eg Council Regulation (EEC) no. 2300/76, 20 September 1976, concluding the Framework Agreement for commercial and economic cooperation between the European Communities and Canada, OJ 1976 L 260/1 arts 113, 235; Council Regulation (EEC) 2237/78, 26 September, 1978 concerning the conclusion of the Financial Protocol and the Additinal Protocol to the Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Portuguese Republic, OJ 1978 L 274/1 arts 113, 235; Council Decision 80/444/EEC, 21 April 1980 concerning the conclusion of the Convention between the European Economic Community and the United Nations Relief and Work Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA) concerning aid to refugees in the countries of the Near East for 1979 and 1980, OJ 1980 L 108/55 arts 43, 235. A previous CommunityUNRWA Convention was based on Articles 113, 114 and 228. See Council Decision 75/585/EEC, 25 July 1977, concluding the Convention for the protection of the Mediterranean Sea against pollution and the Protocol for the prevention of the pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by dumping from ships and aircraft, OJ 1977 L 240/1 (exclusively based on Article 235), Council Decision 77/586/EEC, 25 July 1977, concluding the Convention for the protection of the Rhine against chemical pollution and an Additional Agreement to the Agreement, signed in Berne on 29 April 1963 concerning the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine against Pollution, OJ 1977 L 240/35 (A mixed agreement by Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the EEC, exclusively based on Article 235). The conclusion of the abovementioned agreement could have been legally based on power implied by certain Community directives such as Directive 76/160 of 8 December 1975 concerning the quality of bathing water, OJ 1976 L31/l, and Directive 76/464, 4 May 1976 on Pollution caused by certain dangerous substances discharged into the aquatic environment of the Community, OJ 1976 L129/23. These ’directives had been issued under Article 100 and 235.
190 Eg D O’Keefe & H.G Schermers (eds) Mixed Agreements (1983) and Timmermans and, Völker (eds). supra n8.
191 Opinion 1/75 Re the OECD Understanding on a local cost standard [1976] 1 CLMR 85; [1975] ECR 1355; Kapteyn, supra n136, 489; Pescatore, P, “External Relations in the Case Law of the Court of Justice of the European Communities” (1979) 16 CML Rev 615, 624.Google Scholar
192 Koers, supra n191, 293-297.
193 Joined cases 3, 4 and 6/76 Cornelis Kramer and others [1976] ECR 1279, 1310; Case 41/76 Donckerwolcke v Procureur de la Republique au Tribunal de Grande Instance, Lille and Director General of Customs, [1976] ECR 1921, 1936; Case 61/77 EC v Ireland [1978] ECR 417, 449; cf P Pescatore, supra n191, 618.
194 Eg the Common Customs Tariff is collected by the Member States. EC Council Reg 3000/75, 17 November 1975 OJ 1975 L 304/1.
195 Case 26/62 [1963] ECR 1.
196 Pescatore, supra n191, 626.
197 Joined cases 3, 4 and 6/76 Cornelis Kramer and others [1976] ECR 1279, 1310; cf Pescatore supra n191, 630; Barav, supra n147, 45-48.
198 Case 22/70 Commission v Council, Re the European Road Transport Agreement (ERTA) [1971] CMLR 335, 355.
199 Ibid 356.
200 Ibid 355.
201 Burrows, supra n142.
202 Case 22/70 Commission v Council, Re the European Road Transport Agreement (ERTA) [1971] CMLR 335, 338 per Advocate General Dutheillet de Lamothe.
203 Ibid 359-360.
204 [1976] 1 CMLR 85; [1975] ECR 1355.
205 Joined cases 3, 4, 6/76 [1976] ECR 1279.
206 Case 61/77 [1978] ECR 417.
207 Fischer in Timmermans and Völker (eds) supra n8, 138.
208 EEC Treaty art 228; Case 804/79 Commission of the EC v United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland [1981] ECR 1045.
209 [1977] ECR 741; [1977] 2 CMLR 279.
210 OJ 1972 C56, 4; OJ 1972 C 61, 8.
211 Opinion 1/76 Re the Draft Agreement Establishing a European Laying up Fund for Inland Waterway Vessels [1977] 2 CMLR 279, 296.
212 Ibid 298-299.
213 [1979] ECR 2871.
214 Ibid 2916-2918.
215 Ibid.
216 Opinion 1/78 Re the Draft International Agreement on Natural Rubber [1979] 3 CMLR 639.
217 [1976] 1 CMLR 85, 93-94; [1975] ECR 1355.
218 [1979] ECR 2871, 2912-2913.
219 [1979] 1 CMLR 131; [1979] ECR 2871.
220 OJ 1980 L 71; cf Approval of International Olive Oil Agreement, 12 November 1979, OJ 1979 L 327/1.
221 Wellenstein, supra nll3; Close, “Self-restraint by the EEC in the Exercise of its External Powers” (1981) 1 Yrbk Eur L 45; Weiler, “The External Legal Relations of Non-Unitary Actors: Mixity and the Fedenli Principle” in O’Keefe and Schermers (eds), supra n190.
222 Ehlermann, “Mixed Agreements. A List of Problepis” in O’Keefe and Schermers (eds), supra n190 H Van Houtte, “International Law and Community Treaty Making Power” (1981) 3 Nw J Int’l & Bus 621, 625.
223 Above p 265.
224 (1981) Bulletin of EC No3, 55, point 2.2.17 reporting the decision of Council 30 March 1981.
225 Burrows, supra n142.
226 Cf Mitchell in LWA Timmermans and ELM Volker (eds) supra n8, 137.
227 L of N Doc c 75 M 69, 1929, v, at 175; cf UNGA, Official Records, 29th Session A/C, 6/SR 1494 (Mr Coles) 7 November 1974.
228 21 & 22 Geo 5 c 4 (1935); adopted by Australia in 1942 retrospective to 3 September 1939 by Act No 56 of 1942.
229 28 and 29 Viet c 63 (1865).
230 21 and 22 Geo 5 c 4 (1931), s 9.
231 (1935) 9 ALJ Supp 9.
232 See O’Connell, , “The Evolution of Australia’s International Personality” in DP O’Connell (ed), International Law in Australia (1965) 30-31.Google Scholar
233 Ehlermann, supra n222.
234 OJ 1967 L66, 2.
235 Wellenstein, supra nl13, 418.
236 Ibid 420.
237 EEC Treaty art 228, Euratom Treaty art 192.
238 Cf I L C, Draft Articles on the law of treaties between States and international organisations or between international organisations, art 36 bis, General Assembly, Official Records: 37th Session, Supplement No IO (A/37/10), Ch ll at 87.
239 M Van Houtte, supra n222, 635; but see, Ehlermann, supra n222, ll, A, 3 and at II, B, 6 (discussing the responsibility issue with respect to ’PROBA 20’, in UNCTAD).
240 Annex IX, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Official Text, United Nation, 1983. UN Doc A/Conf 62/122 and Corr 3, Corr 8; reprinted in (1982) 21 International Legal Materials 1261.
241 Ibid art 2.
242 Ibid art 3 para one.
243 Ibid 4 para five.
244 Ibid art 4 para four.
245 Ibid art 5 paras one, two, three, four and six.
246 Ibid art 5 para five.
247 UN Doc A/Conf 39/27 (1969).
248 Eg Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Carribean Region (1982) (as yet unpublished).
249 (1936) 55 CLR 608.
250 Ibid 625.
251 Ibid 628.
252 21 & 22 Geo 5 c 4 (1931).
253 R v Burgess; ex parte Henry (1936) 55 CLR 608, 628.
254 Ibid 644.
255 Ibid 639-640.
256 Ibid 654-655.
257 Ibid 677.
258 Ibid 681-682, 686.
259 Ibid 683-684.
260 Ibid 696.
261 Ibid 669.
262 Ibid. Compare the external/internal distinction applied in the EC. See supra nl10 and nn134-137 and accompanying text.
263 Ibid 658-660.
264 Ibid 662-665.
265 Cf Bradley v Commonwealth (1973) 128 CLR 557; A-G for Canada v A-G for Ontario [1937] AC 326, 347.
266 Ffrost v Stevenson (1937) 58 CLR 528, 557 per Latham CJ, 601 per Evatt J.
267 (1695) 113 CLR 54.
268 (1936) 55 CLR 608.
269 Ibid.
270 (1964) 113 CLR I, 27.
271 (1936) 55 CLR 608.
272 (1965) 113 CLR 54.
273 Ibid 85, also 153 per Windeyer J.
274 lbid 86.
275 Ibid.
276 (1936) 55 CLR 608.
277 Airlines of NSW Pty Ltd v NSW (No 2) (1965) 113 CLR 54, 97.
278 Ibid.
279 Ibid 98-99.
280 (1936) 55 CLR 608.
281 Airlines of NSW Pty Ltd v NSW(No 2) (1965) 113 CLR 54 111 per Kitto J, 126-127 per Taylor J, 145 per Menzies J and 167 per Owen J.
282 Ibid 143.
283 Ibid 149.
284 Ibid 152.
285 Ibid 109-110.
286 Ibid 120-122.
287 Ibid 147-148.
288 Ibid 156.
289 Ibid 168.
290 (1965) 113 CLR 54.
291 Murphyores Inc Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1976) 136 CLR 1; cf Herald and Weeki Times Ltd v Commonwealth (1966) 115 CLR 418.
300 (1969) 660 UNTS 195.
301 (1972) 27 UST 37; TIAS 8226; ratified by Australia on 22 August 1974 with entry into force on 17 December 1975.
302 (1969) 660 UNTS 195.
303 (1982) 39 ALR 417.
304 (1936) 55 CLR 608.
305 Koowarta v Bjelke Petersen (1982) 39 ALR 417,444 per Gibbs CJ, 480-481 per Wilson J.
306 (1936) 55 CLR 608, 669.
307 Koowarta v Bjelke Peterson (1982) 39 ALR 417, 453.
308 Ibid 456.
309 Ibid 486.
310 Ibid 487.
311 Ibid 488.
312 (1936) 55 CLR 608.
313 Koowarta v Bjelke Peterson (1982) 39 ALR 417, 464.
314 lbid 472-473.
315 Victoria v Commonwealth (1971) 122 CLR 353.
316 Koowarta v Bjelke Petersen (1982) 39 ALR 417,433 per Gibbs CJ, 459-460 per Mason J
317 Viskauskas v Niland (1983) 47 ALR 32.
318 (1983) 46 ALR 625.
319 Early commentaries include: M Coper, ’The Franklin Dam Case (1983); J Goldring, “Dams or Floodgates” (1983) 8 Legal Service Bulletin I56; Lane, PH “The Federal Parliament’s External Affairs Power; The Tasmanian Dam Case” (1983) 57 ALJ 554.Google Scholar
320 (1982) 39 ALR 417.
321 (1983) 46 ALR 625.
322 Ibid 666 per Gibbs CJ, 742 per Wilson J.
323 Ibid 670 per Gibbs CJ, 743-744 per Wilson J.
324 Ibid 658, 661-663 per Gibbs CJ 746-747 per Wilson J, 847-848 per Dawson J.
325 Ibid 667 per Gibbs CJ, 745 per Wilson J.
326 Ibid.
327 (1982) 39 ALR 417.
328 Commonwealth v Tasmania (1983) 46 ALR 625, 670-671.
329 Ibid 750.
330 (1936) 55 CLR 608, 674-675.
331 Commonwealth v Tasmania (1983) 46 ALR 625, 675; see also 752 per Wilson J.
332 (1982) 39 ALR 417.
333 Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd (1920) 28 CLR 124.
334 (1983) 46 ALR 625.
335 Ibid 838-841.
336 Ibid 849.
337 (1982) 39 ALR 417.
338 Commonwealth v Tasmania (1983) 46 ALR 625, 691 per Mason J, 729-730 per Murphy T, 772 per Brennan J, 806 per Deane J.
339 (1982) 39 ALR 417.
340 (1936) 55 CLR 608.
341 (1920) 28 CLR 129.
342 Commonwealth v Tasmania (1983) 46 ALR 625, 728, cf 703 per Mason J, 772 per lrennan J, 824 per Deane J.
343 Ibid. Cf 693 per Mason J.
344 (1920) 28 CLR 129.
345 Commonwealth v Tasmania (1983) 46 ALR 625, 692.
346 Ibid 698.
347 Ibid 703.
348 (1936) 55 CLR 608, 665.
349 (1982) 39 ALR 417, 445.
350 Commonwealth v Tasmania (1983) 46 ALR 625, 772.
351 Ibid 777.
352 Commonwealth v Tasmania (1983) 46 ALR 625, 728, cj 703 per Mason J, 772 per Brennan J, 824 per Deane J.
353 Ibid 808.
354 (1983) 46 ALR 625.
355 (1920) 252 us 416.
356 M Coper, supra n319, 23-24.
357 Case 111/75 Mazzalai v Ferrovia de Renon (1976) ECR 657, 665 paras 7-9.
358 Case 181/73 Haegeman v Belgian State [1974] ECR 449 paras 4, 6; Joined Cases 267 & 269/81 Amministrazione delle Finance dello Stato v Societa Petrolifera Italiana SpA et alii, Judgement of 16 March 1983, OJ 1983 C 103/5 paras 15, 19 and 26.
359 Joined Cases 21 to 24/72 International Fruit Co NV and others v Produktschup voor Groenten en Fruit [1972] ECR 119.
360 Case 87/75 Bresciani v Amministrazione Italiana delle Finanze (1976) ECR 129; Case 52/77 Cayrol v Rivoira (1977) ECR 2261.
361 Case 270/80 Polydor Ltd v Harlequin Records Shop Ltd (1982) ECR 329.
362 Bebr, supra n82, 36-38.
363 Cf Case 181/73 Haegemann v Belgian State [1974] ECR 449 and Case 40/72 Schroeder v Federal Republic of Germany [1973] ECR 125 with Case 87/75 Bresciani v Amministrazione’ Italiana delle Finanze (1976) ECR 129 and Case 104/82 Hauptzollamt Mainz v Kupfeberg [1982] ECR 1331.
364 EEC Treaty art 228.
365 Bebr, supra n82, 39.
366 EEC Treaty art 189.
367 Winter, JA, “Direct Applicability and Direct Effect: Two Distinct and Different Concepts in Community Law” (1972) 9 CML Rev 425.Google Scholar
368 Joined Cases 21 to 24/72 [1972] ECR 1219.
369 Case 9/73 Schlüter v Hauptzollant Lörrach [1973] ECR 1135.
370 Case 266/81 Societa Italiano per l’Oleodotto Transalpino 16 March 1983 (unreported); Joined Cases 290, 291/81 Campagnia Singer SpA and Geigy SpA v Amministrazione delle Finanze delle strato, 16 March 1983 (unreported); see generally E Petersmann supra n80.
371 (1983) 46 ALR 625.
372 Case 38/75 Nederlandse Spoorwegen v Inspecteur der invoerrechten en accijnzen (1975) ECR 1439; Case 87/75 Bresciari v Amministrazione Italiano dele Finanze [1976] ECR 129.
373 Ibid.
374 Ibid 141-142.
375 Case 53/76 Procureur de la Republique v Bouhelier [1977] ECR 197; Case 225/78 [1979] ECR 3151.
376 Case 270/80 Polydor Ltd v Harlequin Records Shop Ltd [1982] ECR 329.
377 Ibid 348-349.
378 Ibid.
379 Case 17/81 Pabst and Richarz v Hauptzollamt Oldenburg [1981] ECR 1331; [1983] 3 CMLRll.
380 EEC Treaty art 95.
381 Case 104/82 [1982] ECR 1331.
382 Case 270/80 [1982] ECR 329.
383 Case 104/82 [1982] ECR 1331.
384 Case 270/80 [1982] ECR 329.
385 Case 104/82 Hauptzollamt Mainz v Kupferberg [1982] ECR 1331.
386 Ibid 3664, para 20.
387 Ibid; Bebr, supra n82 64-65 finds this part of the judgement unconvincing.
388 Ibid see generally the opinion of Advocate-General Rozes who especially stressed the need for reciprocity. In the United States, the fact that another State, part to a treaty whose selfexecuting character is being examined, does not admit the possibility of self-execution, will weigh against self-execution in the United States, US v Postal (1979) 589 F 2d 862.
389 Case 270/80 (1982) ECR 329.
390 Bebr, supra n82, 66.
391 Eg Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen (1983) 39 ALR 417.
392 Case 104/82 (1982) ECR 1331.
393 Above p 269.
394 Leopold, PM, “External Relations Power of the EEC in Theory and in Practice” (1977) 26 ICLQ 54, 60-61.Google Scholar