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The ‘Fatal Conundrum’ of ‘No-Consideration’ Clauses after Plaintiff M61

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Christopher Tran
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Extract

In Plaintiff M61/2010E v Commonwealth (‘Plaintiff M61’), the High Court held in a unanimous joint judgment that the plaintiff asylum seekers on Christmas Island were entitled to procedural fairness and to have their claims for refugee status determined according to law. This decision has significant ramifications for the government’s asylum seeker policy, and it has already been the subject of academic commentary from an immigration perspective. The case also has broader doctrinal significance because it is only the second time that the full bench has considered what this article will call a ‘no-consideration’ clause. The Court held that the legislature can validly confer a power on a decision-maker and at the same time provide that the decision-maker has no duty to consider exercising it. However, on the facts before it, the Minister had decided to consider all requests for asylum and thus had moved beyond the protection of the no-consideration clause.

Type
Research Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 39 , Issue 2 , June 2011 , pp. 303 - 327
Copyright
Copyright © 2011 The Australian National University

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Footnotes

*

My thanks to Professor Mark Aronson, Olaf Ciolek, Graeme Hill, Christopher Loo, Zach Meyers, Vee Vien Tan, Julia Wang and David Wood. The views expressed are my own, as are any errors.

References

1 (2010) 85 ALJR 133.

2 See Mary, Crock and Daniel, Ghezelbash, ‘Due Process and Rule of Law as Human Rights: The High Court and the “Offshore” Processing of Asylum Seekers’ (2011) 18 Australian Journal of Administrative Law 101Google Scholar.

3 See Re Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs; Ex parte Applicants S134/2002 (2003) 211 CLR 441.

4 See Murphyores Inc Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1975) 136 CLR 1, 17–18 (Mason J).

5 Explanatory Memorandum, Migration Legislation Amendment Bill (No 2) 1989 (Cth) 2 [6] (s 61(10)), 3 [11] (s 64U(6)).

6 Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 21 December 1989, 3458 (Allan Holding).

7 Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 21 December 1989, 3465 (Andrew Theophanous).

8 See, eg, Australian Citizenship Act 2007 (Cth) s 48(4); Australian Crime Commission Act 2002 (Cth) s 9(10); Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (Cth) s 152BCN(5); Migration Act 1958 (Cth) ss 37A(6), 46A(7), 46B(7), 48B(6), 91F(6), 91L(6), 91Q(7), 137N(4), 195A(4), 197AE, 351(7), 391(7), 417(7), 454(7) 495B(2), 501A(6), 501J(8).

9 Explanatory Memorandum, Tax Laws Amendment (Improvements to Self Assessment) Bill (No 2) 2005 (Cth) 40 [3.29]. See also Explanatory Memorandum, Migration Legislation Amendment (Temporary Safe Haven Visas) Bill 1999 (Cth) 5 [14], 6 [23], in relation to ss 37A and 91L of the Migration Act.

10 Explanatory Memorandum, Australian Citizenship Bill 2005 (Cth) 64 (emphasis in original).

11 (2007) 158 FCR 510.

12 Ibid 522 [61].

13 [2002] HCATrans 503 (17 October 2002) 80–5. See also Transcript of Proceedings, Re Ruddock; Ex parte Gomez-Rios (High Court of Australia, No S6 of 2000, Kirby J, 28 March 2000).

14 (1998) 194 CLR 355.

15 Another possibility is that the presence of the no-consideration clause means that there could be no error at all. This is not a very likely interpretation, however. The fact that a decision-maker does not have a duty to consider exercising a power does not mean that an error cannot be made in the course of decision-making. The non-existence of such a duty more readily speaks to the consequences or significance of such an error.

16 See Transcript of Proceedings, Re Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs; Ex parte Applicant M198/2004 [2004] HCATrans 568 (13 December 2004); Re Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs; Ex parte Fejzullahu (2000) 171 ALR 341, 344 (Gleeson CJ); NAGQ of 2002 v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs [2002] FCA 1016 (12 August 2002) [6] (Branson J); Kolotau v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs [2002] FCA 1145 (5 September 2002) [8] (Hely J); Tavalu v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs [2002] FCA 1027 (15 August 2002) [4]–[5] (Moore J); Tavalu v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs [2002] FCAFC 419 (5 December 2002) [5] (Wilcox J); Applicant NAGM v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs [2002] FCAFC 395 (5 December 2002) [9] (Sackville, Allsop and Jacobson JJ); Egounova v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs [2004] FCA 49 (2 February 2004) [14] (Branson J). See also Kevin, Boreham, ‘“Wide and Unmanageable Discretions“: The Migration Amendment (Detention Arrangements) Act 2005 (Cth)’ (2006) 17 Public Law Review 16, 21Google Scholar.

17 (2003) 211 CLR 441.

18 See below n 77 below and accompanying text.

19 (2003) 211 CLR 441.

20 Ibid 461.

21 Ibid 474.

22 (1996) 71 FCR 1.

23 Ozmanian v Minister for Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs (1996) 137 ALR 103, 137.

24 Ozmanian (1996) 71 FCR 1, 31.

25 Ibid 32.

26 Ibid.

27 Ibid.

28 Ibid.

29 Ibid.

30 Ibid 33. Cf Ainsworth v Criminal Justice Commission (1992) 175 CLR 564.

31 Ozmanian (1996) 71 FCR 1, 33 (Kiefel J).

32 Ibid.

33 See Leighton, McDonald, ‘The Entrenched Minimum Provision of Judicial Review and the Rule of Law’ (2010) 21 Public Law Review 14Google Scholar.

34 See R v Hickman; Ex parte Fox (1945) 70 CLR 598; Plaintiff S157/2002 v Commonwealth (2003) 211 CLR 476.

35 Transcript of Proceedings, Applicant S1083 of 2003 v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs [2006] HCATrans 15 (3 February 2006) 320–5 (Kirby J). See also Transcript of Proceedings, Re Ruddock; Ex parte Gomez-Rios (High Court of Australia, No S6 of 2000, Kirby J, 28 March 2000).

36 Applicants S134 (2003) 211 CLR 441, 461 (Gleeson CJ, McHugh, Gummow, Hayne and Callinan JJ).

37 See Federal Commissioner of Taxation v Futuris Corporation Ltd (2008) 237 CLR 146, 157 [25] (Gummow, Hayne, Heydon and Crennan JJ); McDonald, above n 33, 22.

38 (1992) 39 FCR 401.

39 Ibid 417–18.

40 Ibid 417. See also Bedlington v Chong (1998) 87 FCR 75.

41 Morato (1992) 39 FCR 401, 417–18.

42 Ibid 418.

43 (High Court of Australia, No S6 of 2000, Kirby J, 28 March 2000).

44 Ibid 575–90.

45 Ibid 685–95.

46 ‘If a case is brought to the Minister's attention, the Minister may first consider whether or not he wishes to consider substituting a more favourable decision in the case': Senate Select Committee on Ministerial Discretion in Migration Matters, Senate, Report (2004) Appendix 5, 12 [3.7.2] (Migration Series Instruction 387).

47 (1998) 87 FCR 75.

48 Ibid 77.

49 Ibid 80.

50 Ibid.

51 (2007) 158 FCR 510, 522–3.

52 Ibid 523.

53 Migration Act 1958 (Cth) s 46A.

54 Note that this summary is formulated differently from the Court's own summary: see Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 137 [9] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

55 Ibid 144–5 [53]–[61].

56 Ibid 145–7 [62]–[71].

57 Ibid 147–9 [63]–[79].

58 Ibid 149–51 [80]–[98].

59 Ibid 151–2 [99]–[104].

60 For a wider discussion of the case, see Crock and Ghezelbash, above n 2.

61 See, eg, Gypsy Jokers Motorcycle Club Inc v Commissioner of Police (2008) 234 CLR 532, 553 [11] (Gummow, Hayne, Heydon and Kiefel JJ); Bodruddaza v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (2007) 228 CLR 651, 662 [20] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Kirby, Hayne, Heydon and Crennan JJ).

62 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 137 [9] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ). See also at 147 [71], 148 [78].

63 Ibid 142 [40].

64 Ibid 142 [40], 147 [70].

65 Ibid 141 [37].

66 Ibid 141 [38], 146 [66].

67 Ibid 142 [39].

68 Ibid 145 [63], 146 [66].

69 Ibid 145–6 [64]. Cf Al Kateb v Godwin (2004) 219 CLR 562. See generally Leslie, Zines, The High Court and the Constitution (Federation Press, 5th ed, 2008) 282–91Google Scholar.

70 See above nn 38–52 and accompanying text.

71 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 147 [70] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ) (emphasis in original).

72 Ibid 147 [71].

73 Cf David Dyzenhaus, The Constitution of Law: Legality in a Time of Emergency (Cambridge University Press, 2006) 106, 113.

74 See Plaintiff S157/2002 v Commonwealth (2003) 211 CLR 476.

75 (2008) 237 CLR 146, 157 [25] (Gummow, Hayne, Heydon and Crennan JJ).

76 Australian Conservation Foundation v Forestry Commission (1988) 19 FCR 127, 135 (Burchett J). See Mark Aronson, Bruce Dyer and Matthew Groves, Judicial Review of Administrative Action (Lawbook, 4th ed, 2009) 287 [5.45].

77 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 137 [9], 151–2 [99]–[100] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

78 The Court in Plaintiff M61 did not necessarily exclude the possibility of an injunction either: ‘There being no present threat to remove either plaintiff without a further RSA being undertaken, in which the law would be correctly applied and procedural fairness afforded, it is not now necessary to consider granting an injunction': ibid 137 [8] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ). However, in Plaintiffs M168/10, M170/10, M172/10 and M174/10 v Commonwealth (2011) 85 ALJR 790, 796 [37], Crennan J observed that ‘the Court would lack the power to issue interlocutory mandatory injunctions compelling the Minister to consider exercising those powers.’

79 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 152–3 [105] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

80 (1996) 71 FCR 1.

81 See Anthony, E Cassimatis, ‘Judicial Attitudes to Judicial Review: A Comparative Examination of Justifications Offered for Restricting the Scope of Judicial Review in Australia, Canada and England’ (2010) 34 Melbourne University Law Review 1, 30–2Google Scholar.

82 P W, Young, Declaratory Orders (Butterworths, 2nd ed, 1984) 7 [107]Google Scholar.

83 See Wayne, Martin, ‘Declaratory Relief Since the 1970s’ in Kanaga, Dharmananda and Anthony, Papamatheos (eds), Perspectives on Declaratory Relief (Federation Press, 2009) 8, 12–13Google Scholar.

84 Forster v Jododex Australia Pty Ltd (1972) 127 CLR 421, 437 (Gibbs J), approved in Ainsworth v Criminal Justice Commission (1992) 175 CLR 564, 581–2 (Mason CJ, Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ).

85 See, eg, Martin, above n 83, 8, 14, 24; E M, Heenan, ‘History of Declaratory Relief – A Distinct Remedy Beyond Equitable Affiliations’ in Kanaga, Dharmananda and Anthony, Papamatheos (eds), Perspectives on Declaratory Relief (Federation Press, 2009) 51, 52, 74Google Scholar.

86 See, eg, Aronson, Dyer and Groves, above n 76, 901 [15.05].

87 RP, Meagher, JD, Heydon and MJ, Leeming, Meagher, Gummow and Lehane's Equity: Doctrines and Remedies (Butterworths LexisNexis, 4th ed, 2002) 624Google Scholar [19–105], quoted in Martin, above n 83, 14.

88 See Forster v Jododex Australia Pty Ltd (1972) 127 CLR 421, 436; P W Young, above n 82, 131–2 [1410].

89 Corporation of the City of Enfield v Development Assessment Commission (2000) 199 CLR 135, 157–8 [57]–[58].

90 Forster v Jododex Australia Pty Ltd (1972) 127 CLR 421, 428.

91 Abebe v Commonwealth (1999) 197 CLR 510, 527 [31] (Gleeson CJ and McHugh J).

92 Corporation of the City of Enfield v Development Assessment Commission (2000) 199 CLR 135, 158 [58] (Gaudron J).

93 Aussie Airlines Pty Ltd v Australian Airlines Ltd (1996) 68 FCR 406, 414. See also Aronson, Dyer and Groves, above n 76, 901 [15.05].

94 See also Richard, Hooker, ‘Commentary on Chapters by Daryl Williams QC and Grant Donaldson SC’ in Kanaga, Dharmananda and Anthony, Papamatheos (eds), Perspectives on Declaratory Relief (Federation Press, 2009) 155Google Scholar, 159–60; JusticeMichelle, Gordon, ‘Declaratory Relief – The Same Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow?’ in Kanaga, Dharmananda and Anthony, Papamatheos (eds), Perspectives on Declaratory Relief (Federation Press, 2009) 178, 206–7Google Scholar.

95 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 152 [103] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ), citing Gardner v Dairy Industry Authority (NSW) (1977) 18 ALR 55, 69 (Mason J), 71 (Aickin J).

96 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 152 [103] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ), citing Bass v Permanent Trustee Co Ltd (1999) 198 CLR 334, 355–6 [46]–[47] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Hayne and Callinan JJ).

97 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 152 [103] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ), citing Russian Commercial & Industrial Bank v British Bank for Foreign Trade Ltd [1921] 2 AC 438, 448 (Lord Dunedin) ('it is a matter of real importance to the respondents, as guiding their rule of conduct’) and Forster v Jododex Australia Pty Ltd (1972) 127 CLR 421, 437–8.

98 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 152 [103] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

99 Ibid 152 [103], citing Gedeon v Commissioner of NSW Crime Commission (2008) 236 CLR 120, 134 [25] (Gummow, Kirby, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan and Kiefel JJ) ('considerable public interest in the observance of due process by law enforcement authorities’ by settling questions of statutory interpretation).

100 (1992) 175 CLR 564, 582.

101 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 152 [102]. See generally Neil, J Young, ‘Declarations and Other Remedies in Administrative Law’ (2004) 12 Australian Journal of Administrative Law 35Google Scholar, 46–9; Heenan, above n 85, 73–4.

102 See Bateman's Bay Local Aboriginal Land Council v The Aboriginal Community Benefit Fund Pty Ltd (1998) 194 CLR 247, 262 [37] (Gaudron, Gummow and Kirby JJ); Pape (2009) 238 CLR 1, 35 [50]–[51] (French CJ), 68 [152] (Gummow, Crennan and Bell JJ), 99 [273] (Hayne and Kiefel JJ).

103 (2009) 238 CLR 1, 68 [152].

104 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 150 [87] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

105 Ibid.

106 Pape (2009) 238 CLR 1, 69 [158] (Gummow, Crennan and Bell JJ). See also at 34 [46], 36 [52] (French CJ), 99 [273]–[274] (Hayne and Kiefel JJ), 138 [401] (Heydon J).

107 (2010) 85 ALJR 213.

108 Ibid 247 [168]. See further at 234 [87]. Additionally, the Commissioner had undertaken to add and transfer names in the event of invalidity.

109 See also the Court's citation of Gardner v Dairy Industry Authority (NSW) (1977) 18 ALR 55, 69 (Mason J) ibid 152 [103] n 50. According to Mason J, ‘[a]ll that was suggested was that the Executive might in some undefined way initiate administrative or legislative action which would improve the lot of the appellants and persons in the appellants’ position.’ By implication, the Court in Plaintiff M61 may have considered that a declaration would lead to greater consequences than envisaged by Mason J in Gardner.

110 In re Judiciary and Navigation Acts (1921) 29 CLR 257, 264 (Knox CJ, Gavan Duffy, Powers, Rich and Starke JJ). See also Wilson v Minister for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs (1996) 189 CLR 1, 11 (Brennan CJ, Dawson, Toohey, McHugh and Gummow JJ); Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs v B (2004) 219 CLR 365, 377–8 [7]–[8] (Gleeson CJ and McHugh J); Re McBain; Ex parte Australian Catholic Bishops Conference (2002) 209 CLR 372, 458–9 [242] (Hayne J). See generally James, Stellios, The Federal Judicature — Chapter III of the Constitution (LexisNexis Butterworths, 2010) 119–32Google Scholar, 309–10.

111 See NW, McKerracher, ‘Commentary on the Chapters of Chief Justice Martin, Justice French and Justice Heenan’ in Kanaga, Dharmananda and Anthony, Papamatheos (eds), Perspectives on Declaratory Relief (Federation Press, 2009) 89Google Scholar, 111, discussing Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs v VFAD (2002) 125 FCR 249; Aronson, Dyer and Groves, above n 76, 923–4 [15.115].

112 Cf Aronson, Dyer and Groves, above n 76, 923 [15.115].

113 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 152 [101] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

114 See, eg, Direct Share Purchasing Corporation Pty Ltd v LM Investment Management Limited 82 ACSR 249, 257–8 [38]–[41] (Gordon J); Edwards v Santos (2011) 85 ALJR 464, 473–4 [36]–[39] (Heydon J).

115 (2005) 221 CLR 99. My thanks to Professor Mark Aronson for bringing this to my attention.

116 See Mark, Aronson, ‘Private Bodies, Public Power and Soft Law in the High Court’ (2007) 35 Federal Law Review 1Google Scholar, 15–17. See also Graeme, Hill, ‘Griffith University v Tang — Comparison with Neat Domestic, and the Relevance of Constitutional Factors’ [2005] (47) AIAL Forum 6Google Scholar, 11–13.

117 Griffith University v Tang (2005) 221 CLR 99, 131 [90].

118 Ibid 131 [91].

119 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 148 [77] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ). See also at 152 [100].

120 Ibid 138 [16].

121 (2007) 228 CLR 651, 668 [46] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Kirby, Hayne, Heydon and Crennan JJ).

122 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 144 [54] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

123 Ibid.

124 (1951) 83 CLR 1, 193.

125 (2010) 239 CLR 531, 581 [99] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

126 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 144 [54] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

127 Ibid 145 [58].

128 Ibid 144 [56].

129 See, eg, Walter Sofronoff, ‘Constitutional Writs’ (2007) 14 Australian Journal of Administrative Law 145, 155; McDonald, above n 33, 19.

130 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 144–5 [57] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

131 Ibid 145 [58].

132 Ibid 145 [59].

133 (2005) 224 CLR 494.

134 Ibid 579 [165].

135 Injunctions are mentioned in s 75(v), and the Court in Plaintiff M61 appeared to envisage that injunctive relief was not excluded by a no-consideration clause, although Crennan J has since observed that the Court could not issue an interlocutory mandatory injunction either: see above n 78. Declaratory relief may not, therefore, bear the burden of maintaining s 75(v) alone. However, the Court in Plaintiff M61 was more concerned with declaratory relief than with injunctive relief, giving the impression that it considered the availability of the former to be sufficient on its own to protect s 75(v).

136 For the purposes of considering whether the RSAs and IMRs were an exercise of statutory or non-statutory executive power, attention was drawn during oral argument to the fact that ss 46A and 195A regulated an applicant's first interaction with the Australian legal system. It might be possible to divide statutory powers into those that affect people wishing to enter Australia (for example, asylum seekers) and those that affect the rights of people already in Australia (for example, Australian citizens). Especially given Australia has a very thin legal concept of citizenship, it is doubtful that this sort of distinction has any constitutional relevance.

137 Bodruddaza (2007) 228 CLR 651, 671 [53] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Kirby, Hayne, Heydon and Crennan JJ).

138 One reason for this may be that, unlike no-invalidity and privative clauses, a no-consideration clause cannot depart much from the standard formulation. If it did so, presumably the Court could find such a clause invalid for the same sorts of reasons that have been mooted with respect to overly adventurous privative and no-invalidity clauses.

139 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 144 [55] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

140 Ibid 146 [69]. See Carltona Ltd v Commissioner of Works [1943] 2 All ER 560.

141 Cf Tickner v Chapman (1995) 57 FCR 451.

142 See O'Reilly v The Commissioners of the State Bank of Victoria (1983) 153 CLR 1.

143 See ‘Developments’ (2011) 22 Public Law Review 75, 76.

144 Albeit with benevolent intentions: see Repatriation of Citizens Bill 2007 [2008] (Cth), discussed in Christopher, Tran, ‘Government Duties to Provide Diplomatic Protection in a Comparative Perspective’ (2011) 85 Australian Law Journal 300Google Scholar, 303.

145 See, eg, Hostage Act, 22 USC § 1732 (1868).

146 See generally Australian Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Consular Services Charter <http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/consular_charter/index.html>.

147 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, opened for signature 24 April 1963, 596 UNTS 261 (entered into force 19 March 1967) art 55.

148 See John Dugard, First Report on Diplomatic Protection, UN GAOR, UN Doc A/CN.4/506 (7 March 2000) 15 [43].

149 Ibid 10 [31]–[32].

150 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v Spain) (Judgment) [1970] ICJ Rep 3, 44 [78]–[79].

151 Ibid 44 [78].

152 (2007) 156 FCR 574, 593 [62].

153 See Tran, above n 144, 314–19.

154 Cf Germany (see Hess BVerfGE 55, 349 (1980); 90 ILR 387) and South Africa (Kaunda v President of the Republic of South Africa [2005] 4 SA 235).

155 Plaintiff M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 147 [71] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

156 A-G (Cth) v Queensland (1990) 25 FCR 125, 142. See also Semunigus v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (2000) 96 FCR 533, 542–3 (Higgins J).

157 See n 78.

158 See, eg, Lorna, McGregor, ‘Are Declaratory Orders Appropriate for Continuing Human Rights Violations? The Case of Khadr v Canada’ (2010) 10 Human Rights Law Review 487Google Scholar.

159 See Von Abo v Government of the Republic of South Africa [2009] 2 SA 526; Von Abo v Government of the Republic of South Africa [2010] 3 SA 269. See generally Tran, above n 144, 307, 320.

160 Government of the Republic of South Africa v Von Abo [2011] ZASCA 65 (4 April 2011) [42].

161 See ‘Court Ends Von Abo Bid for Compensation for Lost Farms', Legalbrief Today (online), 24 May 2011 <http://www.legalbrief.co.za/article.php?story=20110524101913151>.

162 See Chris Bowen, ‘Government Response to High Court Decision Regarding Judicial Review for Asylum Seekers who Arrive on an Offshore Excised Place, Indonesian and Australian Cooperation on People Smuggling Issues, Wikileaks’ (Press Conference, Sydney, 7 January 2011) <http://www.minister.immi.gov.au/media/cb/2011/cb157099.htm>.