¹ Plaintiff S157/2002 v Commonwealth (2003) 211 CLR 476, 513 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ) ('S157’); Bodruddaza v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (2007) 228 CLR 651, 668–9 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Kirby, Hayne, Heydon and Crennan JJ) ('Bodruddaza’).

² S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476; Kirk v Industrial Court of New South Wales (2010) 239 CLR 531 ('Kirk’).

³ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531.

⁴ Cheryl, Saunders, ‘Plaintiff S157/2002: A Case-Study in Common Law Constitutionalism’ (2005) 12 Australian Journal of Administrative Law 115, 124Google Scholar.

⁵ Some scholarly efforts to identify the relevant principles have been made: Jeremy, Kirk, ‘The Entrenched Minimum Provision of Judicial Review’ (2004) 12 Australian Journal of Administrative Law 64Google Scholar; Susan, Kneebone, ‘What is the Basis of Judicial Review?’ (2001) 12 Public Law Review 95Google Scholar; John, Basten, ‘Constitutional Elements of Judicial Review’ (2004) 15 Public Law Review 187Google Scholar; Leighton, McDonald, ‘The Entrenched Minimum Provision of Judicial Review and the Rule of Law’ (2010) 21 Public Law Review 14Google Scholar.

⁶ (2003) 211 CLR 476, 512 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ)..

⁷ Ibid.

⁸ Ibid 512–13.

⁹ Ibid 513 (citations omitted).

¹⁰ (2010) 85 ALJR 133 ('M61’).

¹¹ Migration Act 1958 (Cth) s 46A(7).

¹² M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 138 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

¹³ (2010) 239 CLR 531, 581 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

¹⁴ M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 144 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ). The applicants were, however, successful on other grounds – they obtained a declaration that they had not been afforded procedural fairness in the processing of their applications by departmental staff and an outsourced review team: see at 149–52.

¹⁵ McDonald, above n 5, 32.

¹⁶ Often expressed as the presumption that legislation does not abrogate or interfere with fundamental rights except in the clearest possible terms: see generally James, Spigelman, ‘Principle of Legality and the Clear Statement Principle’ (2005) 79 Australian Law Journal 769Google Scholar.

¹⁷ See Kirk, above n 5.

¹⁸ Mark, Aronson, Bruce, Dyer and Matthew, Groves, Judicial Review of Administrative Action (Thompson Reuters, 4th ed, 2009) 959–64Google Scholar.

¹⁹ The scholarly output in regard to privative clauses is enormous: see, eg, Saunders, above n 4; Duncan, Kerr and George, Williams, ‘Review of Executive Action and the Rule of Law under the Australian Constitution’ (2003) 14 Public Law Review 219Google Scholar; Enid, Campbell and Matthew, Groves, ‘Privative Clauses and the Australian Constitution’ (2004) 4 Oxford University Commonwealth Law Journal 51Google Scholar; Simon, Evans, ‘Protection Visas and Privative Clause Decisions: Hickman and the Migration Act 1958 (Cth)’ (2002) 9 Australian Journal of Administrative Law 49Google Scholar; Sarah, Ford, ‘Judicial Review of Migration Decisions: Ousting the Hickman Privative Clause’ (2002) 26 Melbourne University Law Review 537Google Scholar; Guy, Coffey, ‘Privative Clauses and the Theoretical Underpinnings of Administrative Law in Australia’ (2003) 39 Australia Institute of Administrative Law Forum 69Google Scholar; Michael, Sexton and Julian, Quilter, ‘Privative Clauses and State Constitutions’ (2003) 5 Constitutional Law and Policy Review 69Google Scholar.

²⁰ (1951) 83 CLR 1.

²¹ Minister for Immigration and Citizenship v SZMDS (2010) 240 CLR 611, 621 (Gummow ACJ and Kiefel J) ('SZMDS’).

²² Constitution s 51(vi). See further Kerr and Williams, above n 19.

²³ Communist Party case (1951) 83 CLR 1, 258 (Fullagar J).

²⁴ Other formulations are possible: David, Dyzenhaus, ‘Disobeying Parliament? Privative Clauses and the Rule of Law’ in Richard, Bauman and Tsvi, Kahana (eds), The Least Examined Branch: The Role of Legislatures in the Constitutional State (Cambridge University Press, 2006) 499, 503Google Scholar.

²⁵ Minister for Aboriginal Affairs v Peko-Wallsend Ltd (1986) 162 CLR 24, 44 (Mason J). The significance of this terminology is discussed further in Part II.

²⁶ It should be acknowledged that these examples of plenary clause permit of degrees: each example only excludes some of the many principles of judicial review. But the term privative clause also permits of degrees, with some clauses being broader than others. The salient point is that, although each provision taken independently may not totally remove the substantive limits of power, taken together they may do so. This point is considered in greater detail in Part III below.

²⁷ (2003) 216 CLR 212.

²⁸ (2003) 216 CLR 212, 224–6 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Heydon JJ), 227–8 (McHugh J). A similar provision was considered in Deputy Commissioner of Taxation v Richard Walter Pty Ltd (1995) 183 CLR 168 ('Richard Walter’) and Commissioner of Taxation v Futuris Corporation Ltd (2008) 237 CLR 146 ('Futuris’): Income Tax Assessment Act 1936 (Cth) s 177(1).

²⁹ See, eg, Abebe v Commonwealth (1999) 197 CLR 510 ('Abebe’).

³⁰ See, eg, Re Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs; Ex parte Miah (2001) ('Miah’).

³¹ See, eg, Re Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs; Ex parte Applicant S20/2002 (2003) 77 ALJR 1165 ('S20’).

³² Perhaps even ‘irresponsible', Saunders, above n 4, 124.

³³ See Aronson, Dyer and Groves, above n 18, 990 citing James Hardie Former Subsidiaries (Winding Up and Administration) Act 2005 (NSW) s 59; Fiscal Responsibility Act 2005 (NSW) s 21(3).

³⁴ For the position in Britain see Harry, Woolf, Jeffrey, Jowell and Andrew, Le Sueur, de Smith's Judicial Review (Sweet and Maxwell, 7th ed, 2007) 200Google Scholar; James, Spigelman, ‘The Centrality of Jurisdictional Error’ (2010) 21 Public Law Review 77, 84Google Scholar and sources cited therein.

³⁵ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 581 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

³⁶ Ibid; S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476, 507–8, 513 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ); Re Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs; Ex parte Lam (2003) 214 CLR 1, 24–5 (McHugh and Gummow JJ) ('Lam’).

³⁷ See, eg, Naomi, Sidebotham, ‘Shaking the Foundations: Dicey, Fig Leaves and Judicial Review’ (2001) 8 Australian Journal of Administrative Law 89Google Scholar; Miah (2001) 206 CLR 57, 123 (Kirby J).

³⁸ Spigelman, ‘Centrality of Jurisdictional Error', above n 34, 85.

³⁹ See generally Mark, Aronson, ‘Jurisdictional Error Without the Tears’ in HP, Lee and Matthew, Grover (eds), Australian Administrative Law: Fundamentals, Principles and Doctrines (Cambridge University Press, 2007) 330Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 571 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ). (quoting Re Refugee Review Tribunal; Ex parte Aala (2000) 204 CLR 82, 141 (Hayne J) ('Aala’)).

⁴¹ Corporation of the City of Enfield v Development Assessment Commission (2000) 199 CLR 135, 144–5 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ) ('Enfield’); Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs v Bhardwaj (2002) 209 CLR 597, 614–5 (Gaudron and Gummow JJ); S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476, 506 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

⁴² Craig v South Australia (1995) 184 CLR 163, 177 (Brennan, Deane, Toohey, Gaudron and McHugh JJ) ('Craig’).

⁴³ Ibid 178 (Brennan, Deane, Toohey, Gaudron and McHugh JJ).

⁴⁴ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 574 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayen, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

⁴⁵ (1998) 194 CLR 355 ('Project Blue Sky’).

⁴⁶ (1998) 194 CLR 355 390–1 (McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ) ('Project Blue Sky’).

⁴⁷ See, eg, Craig (1995) 184 CLR 163; Aala (2000) 204 CLR 82.

⁴⁸ See, eg, Minister for Immigration and Citizenship v SZIAI (2009) 83 ALJR 1123 ('SZIAI’).

⁴⁹ Peter, Cane and Leighton, McDonald, Principles of Administrative Law: Legal Regulation of Governance (Oxford University Press, 2008) 168Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ See Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 569–71 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayen, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

⁵¹ Jurisdictional error is not alone in possessing different characteristics at an administrative and constitutional level: natural justice is both a doctrine of administrative law and a constitutional concept: cf Aala (2000) 204 CLR 82, 101 (Gaudron and Gummow JJ); Ebner v Official Trustee in Bankruptcy (2000) 205 CLR 337, 362–3 (Gaudron J) ('Ebner’).

⁵² S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476, 512–13 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

⁵³ Ibid 499 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

⁵⁴ See, eg, Clancy v Butchers’ Shop Employees Union (1904) 1 CLR 181 ('Clancy’); R v Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration; Ex Parte Whybrow & Co (1910) 11 CLR 1 ('Whybrow’).

⁵⁵ (1945) 70 CLR 598 ('Hickman’).

⁵⁶ (1904) 1 CLR 181.

⁵⁷ Ibid 196–7 (Griffith CJ, Barton J concurring at 203–4 ), 204–5 (O'Connor J).

⁵⁸ Ibid 197.

⁵⁹ Ibid. See, in the same vein, Baxter v NSW Clickers’ Association (1909) 10 CLR 114, 128 (Griffith CJ), 139, 140 (Barton J) ('Baxter’).

⁶⁰ Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1904 (Cth) s 31.

⁶¹ (1910) 11 CLR 1.

⁶² Constitution s 73.

⁶³ Whybrow (1910) 11 CLR 1, 22.

⁶⁴ Ibid 33.

⁶⁵ Ibid 40–41.

⁶⁶ Ibid 42 (O'Connor J).

⁶⁷ Ibid 33 (Barton J). The opinion of the majority in Whybrow was upheld in The Tramways Case [No. 1] (1914) 18 CLR 54 and Waterside Workers’ Federation of Australia v Gilchrist, Watt & Sanderson Ltd (1924) 34 CLR 482.

⁶⁸ (1942) 66 CLR 161, 182, citing Baxter (1909) 10 CLR 114, 148–9 (O'Connor J)., Cf Latham CJ at 176. See also, Morgan v Rylands Brothers (Australia) Ltd (1927) 39 CLR 517, 524 (Issacs ACJ and Powers J), 525–6 (Higgins J), 526 (Gavan Duffy, Rich and Starke JJ).

⁶⁹ (1942) 66 CLR 161, 182.

⁷⁰ (1945) 70 CLR 598.

⁷¹ Hickman (1945) 70 CLR 598, 609 (Latham CJ), 610 (Rich J), 612 (Starke J), 614 (Dixon J), 621 (McTiernan J).

⁷² Ibid 606–7 (Latham CJ), 610 (Rich J), 611 (Starke J), 620 (McTiernan J).

⁷³ Baxter (1909) 10 CLR 114, 148–9 (O'Connor J); Australian Coal (1942) 66 CLR 161, 182 (Starke J).

⁷⁴ (1945) 70 CLR 598, 616.

⁷⁵ See, eg, S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476, 501 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

⁷⁶ Darling Casino Ltd v NSW Casino Control Authority (1997) 191 CLR 602, 630 (Gummow and Gaudron JJ) ('Darling Casino’); Richard Walter (1995) 183 CLR 168, 194 (Brennan J); O'Toole v Charles David Pty Ltd (1990) 171 CLR 232, 274–5 (Brennan J).

⁷⁷ (1951) 82 CLR 208 ('Amalgamated Engineering Union’).

⁷⁸ Ibid 239–40 (Latham CJ), 259 (McTiernan J), 264 (Kitto J).

⁷⁹ Ibid 247–8.

⁸⁰ Ibid 249.

⁸¹ (1949) 77 CLR 387, 399–400.

⁸² Ibid 400.

⁸³ Ibid.

⁸⁴ Amalgamated Engineering Union (1951) 82 CLR 208, 248 (Dixon J).

⁸⁵ See, eg, R v Coldham; Ex parte Australian Workers’ Union (1983) 153 CLR 415, 419 (Mason ACJ and Brennan J) ('Coldham’); Darling Casino (1997) 191 CLR 602, 632 (Gummow and Gaudron JJ).

⁸⁶ See, eg, Darling Casino (1997) 191 CLR 602, 632 (Gaudron and Gummow JJ); Coldham (1983) 153 CLR 415, 419 (Mason ACJ and Brennan J); Kirk Group Holdings Pty Ltd v Workcover Authority of New South Wales (2006) 66 NSWLR 151, 161 (Spigelman CJ) ('Kirk Group’); Woolworths Ltd v Pallas Newco Pty Ltd (2004) 61 NSWLR 707, 723 (Spigelman CJ); Mitchforce Pty Ltd v Industrial Relations Commission of New South Wales (2003) 57 NSWLR 212, 229 (Spigelman CJ).

⁸⁷ Darling Casino (1997) 191 CLR 602, 6334 (Gaudron and Gummow JJ).

⁸⁸ Ibid.

⁸⁹ Ibid 633.

⁹⁰ Ibid 634 (Brennan CJ, Dawson and Toohey JJ concurring at 609) (emphasis added).

⁹¹ Cane and McDonald, above n 49, 210.

⁹² See below text accompanying fn 101.

⁹³ S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476, 493–4 (Gleeson CJ), 507 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ), 534–5 (Callinan J).

⁹⁴ Ibid 500.

⁹⁵ Ibid 504 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

⁹⁶ See, eg, the continuing references to ‘imperative duties’ and ‘inviolable limitations': ibid 493 (Gleeson CJ), 506 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

⁹⁷ Ibid 506 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ). See below Part I.3.

⁹⁸ See, generally, Chris, Finn, ‘Constitutionalising Supervisory Review at State Level: The End of Hickman?’ (2010) 21 Public Law Review 92Google Scholar.

⁹⁹ Section 179(1).

¹⁰⁰ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 559–62, 565–6 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

¹⁰¹ Ibid 583 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ), 585 (Heydon J concurring).

¹⁰² Ibid 566, 581 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

¹⁰³ As that term is used in s 73 of the Constitution.

¹⁰⁴ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 580 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ), quoting The Colonial Bank of Australasia v Willan (1874) LR 5 PC 417, 440.

¹⁰⁵ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 570 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ), quoting from an article written by Louis, Jaffe, ‘Judicial Review: Constitutional and Jurisdictional Fact’ (1957) 70 Harvard Law Review 953Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 581 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

¹⁰⁷ See, eg, Kirk Group (2006) 66 NSWLR 151, 161 (Spigelman CJ).

¹⁰⁸ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 581 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

¹⁰⁹ Kable v Director of Public Prosecution (NSW) (1996) 189 CLR 51, 103 (Gaudron J) ('Kable’).

¹¹⁰ Ibid 143 (Gummow J).

¹¹¹ Hickman (1945) 70 CLR 598, 616; S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476, 504.

¹¹² See, generally, Spigelman, ‘Principle of Legality', above n 16.

¹¹³ Kirk, above n 5, 65.

¹¹⁴ It was, however, invoked to invalidate a strict time limit clause in Bodruddaza (2007) 228 CLR 651.

¹¹⁵ (2003) 211 CLR 476, 506 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

¹¹⁶ Ibid 505 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

¹¹⁷ A declaration of invalidity in respect of State privative clauses could not have been seen as viable until Kirk. There is, however, no immediately apparent reason why the privative clause impugned in Kirk should not have been invalidated on the ground that it undermined the institutional integrity of the Supreme Court of New South Wales by removing an essential characteristic of that Court. It is notable that other provisions impugned as contrary to Kable have been declared invalid: Kable (1996) 189 CLR 51; International Finance Trust Company Ltd v New South Wales Crime Commission (2009) 240 CLR 319; South Australia v Totani (2010) 242 CLR 1 ('Totani’).

¹¹⁸ See Saunders, above n 4, 118.

¹¹⁹ (1904) 1 CLR 181, 197.

¹²⁰ (1947) 75 CLR 361, 369.

¹²¹ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 581 (emphasis added).

¹²² Aronson, Dyer and Groves, above n 18, 953.

¹²³ (1945) 70 CLR 598, 616.

¹²⁴ Mark, Aronson, ‘Commentary on “The Entrenched Minimum Provision of Judicial Review and the Rule of Law“’ (2010) 21 Public Law Review 35, 37Google Scholar.

¹²⁵ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 579.

¹²⁶ Aronson, ‘Commentary', above n 124, 37.

¹²⁷ Cane and McDonald, above n 49, 213.

¹²⁸ Aronson, ‘Commentary', above n 124, 37.

¹²⁹ Kirk, above n 5, 65. See also McDonald, above n 5, 30.

¹³⁰ (1998) 194 CLR 355 381 (McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

¹³¹ Ibid 3812 (McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

¹³² The practical difficulties in determining the extent to which a privative clause expanded the jurisdiction of the decision-maker is surely another good reason: Kirk, above n 5, 70.

¹³³ The ordinary meanings of ‘arbitrary’ and ‘uncontrolled’ are related and interdependent: the Oxford English Dictionary defines arbitrary as ‘uncontrolled power or authority'.

¹³⁴ Cane and McDonald, above n 49, 167–8.

¹³⁵ Ibid 150.

¹³⁶ Aronson, Dyer and Groves, above n 18, 93.

¹³⁷ Not everyone considers this an unreservedly good thing: John, McMillian, ‘Judicial Restraint and Activism in Administrative Law’ (2002) 30 Federal Law Review 335Google Scholar.

¹³⁸ Wade, and Forsyth, , Administrative Law (Clarendon 10th ed, 2009) 287Google Scholar (emphasis added). For the same sentiment criticised in the Australian context, see Aronson, Dyer and Groves, above n 18, 99–100 (citing 9th ed).

¹³⁹ Cane and McDonald, above n 49, 128.

¹⁴⁰ Cf ibid ch 5.

¹⁴¹ Aronson, ‘Jurisdictional Error Without the Tears', above n 39, 336.

¹⁴² (1979) 144 CLR 45 ('2HD’).

¹⁴³ Broadcasting and Television Act 1945 (Cth) s 89A (emphasis added).

¹⁴⁴ 2HD (1979) 144 CLR 45, 49 (Stephen, Mason, Murphy, Aickin and Wilson JJ).

¹⁴⁵ Ibid (emphasis added) (quoting Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission (NSW) v Browning (1947) 74 CLR 492, 505 (Dixon J) (emphasis added)).

¹⁴⁶ Ibid 53.

¹⁴⁷ (1986) 162 CLR 24.

¹⁴⁸ Section 50(3).

¹⁴⁹ (1986) 162 CLR 24, 31 (Gibbs CJ), 46 (Mason J), 66–7 (Brennan J), 70 (Toohey J), 71 (Dawson J).

¹⁵⁰ Ibid 40. Cf 30 (Gibbs CJ), 56 (Brennan J).

¹⁵¹ Ibid 44.

¹⁵² Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs v Wu Shang Liang (1996) 185 CLR 259, 276 (Brennan CJ, McHugh, Toohey and Gummow JJ); Aronson, Dyer and Groves, above n 18, 97–102.

¹⁵³ R v Connell; Ex parte The Hetton Bellbird Collieries Ltd (No 2) (1944) 69 CLR 407, 432 (Latham CJ).

¹⁵⁴ (2010) 240 CLR 611, 620 (citing Secretary of State for Education and Science v Tameside Metropolitan Borough Council [1977] AC 1014), 621 (citing Re Patterson; Ex parte Taylor (2001) 207 CLR 391, 419-20, 453), 623 (citing Avon Downs Pty Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1949) 78 CLR 353, 360 (Dixon J)).

¹⁵⁵ Aronson, Dyer and Groves, above n 18, 477–8.

¹⁵⁶ (1985) 159 CLR 550, 584.

¹⁵⁷ Ibid 614–5.

¹⁵⁸ Ibid 584 (Mason J), 615 (Brennan J).

¹⁵⁹ (2001) 206 CLR 57, 93 (emphasis added).

¹⁶⁰ Ibid 70 (Gleeson CJ and Gummow J), 83 (Gaudron J), 112 (Kirby J).

¹⁶¹ Ibid 95 (McHugh J).

¹⁶² Aala (2000) 204 CLR 82, 100–1 (Gaudron and Gummow JJ). Different considerations apply in relation to the operation of the rules of natural justice in courts where elements of natural justice are constitutionally entrenched: see at 101.

¹⁶³ See Cane and McDonald, above n 49, 156–8, 179–81.

¹⁶⁴ SZMDS (2010) 240 CLR 611, 638 (Crennan and Bell JJ); Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs v SGLB (2004) 207 ALR 12, 20 (Gummow and Hayne JJ).

¹⁶⁵ There have been suggestions that the creation of the ‘illogicality’ ground of review was motivated by the statutory exclusion of unreasonableness by s 476(2)(b) of the Migration Act: SZMDS (2010) 240 CLR 611, 647 (Crennan and Bell JJ) (referring to S20 (2003) 77 ALJR 1165, 1170 (Gleeson CJ)).

¹⁶⁶ Ibid 646 (Crennan and Bell JJ).

¹⁶⁷ Ibid.

¹⁶⁸ See generally, Paul, Finn, ‘Statutes and the Common Law’ (1992) 22 University of Western Australia Law Review 7, 27-28Google Scholar; McDonald, above n 5, 31–2.

¹⁶⁹ S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476, 492 (Gleeson CJ). See also Coco v The Queen (1994) 179 CLR 427, 437 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Gaudron and McHugh JJ) ('Coco’).

¹⁷⁰ Lehman Brothers Inc v City of Swan (2010) 240 CLR 509, 531 (Heydon J).

¹⁷¹ Electrolux Home Products Pty Ltd v Australian Workers’ Union (2004) 211 CLR 309, 329 (Gleeson CJ) ('Electrolux’); CTM v The Queen (2008) 236 CLR 440, 447 447 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Crennan and Kiefel JJ).

¹⁷² Robin, Creyke and John, McMillan, Control of Government Action: Text, Cases and Commentary (Butterworths, 2nd ed, 2009) 482–93Google Scholar.

¹⁷³ (1994) 179 CLR 417.

¹⁷⁴ Invasion of Privacy Act 1971 (Qld) s 43.

¹⁷⁵ Coco (1994) 179 CLR 427, 443 (Mason CJ, Brennan, Gaudron and McHugh JJ).

¹⁷⁶ Ibid.

¹⁷⁷ Ibid.

¹⁷⁸ Al-Kateb v Godwin (2004) 219 CLR 562.

¹⁷⁹ S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476, 492 (Gleeson CJ) (quoting R v Home Secretary; Ex parte Simms [2000] 2 AC 115, 131).

¹⁸⁰ Electrolux (2004) 221 CLR 309, 328.

¹⁸¹ WMC, Gummow, ‘The Constitution: Ultimate Foundation of Australian Law?’ (2005) 79 Australian Law Journal 167, 177Google Scholar.

¹⁸² Momcilovic v The Queen (2011) 280 ALR 221, 242 (French CJ).

¹⁸³ See generally Christopher, Forsyth (ed), Judicial Review and the Constitution (Hart, 2000)Google Scholar.

¹⁸⁴ See, eg, Kneebone, above n 5, 97.

¹⁸⁵ See Dawn Oliver, ‘Is the UltraVires Rule the Basis of Judicial Review’ in, Forsyth, above n 183, 3, 5.

¹⁸⁶ See Paul Craig, ‘Competing Models of Judicial Review’ in Forsyth, above n 183, 372, 375.

¹⁸⁷ See Bradley, Selway, ‘The Principle Behind Common Law Judicial Review of Administrative Action’ — The Search Continues’ (2002) 30 Federal Law Review 217, 218–9Google Scholar.

¹⁸⁸ Ibid 220–1.

¹⁸⁹ See TRS Allan, ‘The Rule of Law as the Foundation of Judicial Review’ in Forsyth, above n 183, 413–15.

¹⁹⁰ But see Lord, Woolf, ‘Droit Public — English Style’ [1995] Public Law 57Google Scholar.

¹⁹¹ Stephen, Gageler, ‘The Underpinnings of Judicial Review: Common Law or Constitution?’ (2000) 28 Federal Law Review 303Google Scholar; Selway, above n 187, Gummow, above n 181.

¹⁹² Cf R v North and East Devon Health Authority; Ex parte Coughlan [2001] QB 213.

¹⁹³ Lam (2003) 214 CLR 1, 24–5. See also, S20 (2003) 77 ALJR 1165, 1176.

¹⁹⁴ Attorney-General (NSW) v Quinn (1995) 184 CLR 16, 35–6 (Brennan J). One prominent scholar has conceived of the division between ‘legality’ and ‘merits’ as the ‘twin pillars’ Australian administrative law: Ronald, Sackville, ‘The Limits of Judicial Review: Australia and the United States’ (2000) 28 Federal Law Review 315, 322Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁵ With the exception of error of law on the face of the record, against which certorari will issue: Craig (1995) 184 CLR 163; Re McBain; Ex parte Australian Catholic Bishops Conference (2002) 209 CLR 372, 412 (McHugh J).

¹⁹⁶ (2003) 77 ALJR 1165, 1176 (McHugh and Gummow JJ); see also Chase Oyster Bar Pty Ltd v Hamo Industries Pty Ltd (2010) 272 ALR 750, 757 (Spigelman CJ). The robustness of the constitutional entrenchment of a statute-orientated conception of jurisdictional error can also be seen in the Court's use of that concept to reject a doctrine of substantive legitimate expectations (Lam (2003) 214 CLR 1) and a deference doctrine (Enfield (2000) 199 CLR 135).

¹⁹⁷ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 581 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

¹⁹⁸ See above, text accompanying fn 45.

¹⁹⁹ Stephen Gageler, ‘Legitimate Expectation: Comment on the Article by the Hon SirAnthony, Mason’ (2005) 12 Australian Journal of Administrative Law 111, 113Google Scholar.

²⁰⁰ Aala (2000) 204 CLR 82,142 (Hayne J); S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476, 483 (Gleeson CJ.

²⁰¹ Gageler, ‘The Underpinnings of Judicial Review', above n 191, 312.

²⁰² Denise, Meyerson, ‘State and Federal Privative Clauses: Not So Different After All’ (2005) 16 Public Law Review 39Google Scholar.

²⁰³ Finn, ‘Constitutionalising Supervisory Review at State Level', above n 98, 106; Basten, above n 5, 201. Cf Spigelman, ‘Principle of Legality', above n 16, 91; McDonald, above n 5, 31–33.

²⁰⁴ See, eg, TRS, Allan, Constitutional Justice: A Liberal Theory of the Rule of Law (Oxford University Press, 2001)Google Scholar; John, Laws, ‘The Constitution, Morals and Rights [1996] Public Law 622Google Scholar; Jeffrey, Jowell, ‘Beyond the Rule of Law, Towards Constitutional Judicial Review’ [2000] Public law 671Google Scholar.

²⁰⁵ Laws, above n 204; Jowell, above n 204.

²⁰⁶ TRS, Allan, ‘Text, Context, and Constitution: The Common Law as Public Reason’ in Douglas, Edlin (ed) Common Law Theory (Cambridge University Press, 2007) 185, 196Google Scholar.

²⁰⁷ John, Allison, The English Historical Constitution (Cambridge University Press, 2007) 216–21Google Scholar.

²⁰⁸ Stephen, Sedley, ‘Human Rights: a Twenty-First Century Agenda’ [1995] Public law 386, 389Google Scholar; Allan, above n 204, 13.

²⁰⁹ Meyerson, above n 202, 40; Laws, above n 204, 627.

²¹⁰ See generally Paul, Craig, ‘Formal and Substantive Conceptions of the Rule of Law: an Analytical Framework’ [1997] Public Law 467Google Scholar.

²¹¹ It is not, however, universally popular: see Thomas, Poole, ‘Questioning Common Law Constitutionalism’ (2005) 25 Legal Studies 142Google Scholar; Thomas, Poole, ‘Dogmatic Liberalism? TRS Allan and the Common Law Constitution’ (2002) 65 Modern Law Review 463Google Scholar; Thomas, Poole, ‘Constitutional Exceptionalism and the Common Law’ (2009) 7 International Journal of Constitutional Law 247Google Scholar; Adam, Tomkins, Our Republican Constitution (Hart, 2005)Google Scholar, Jeffrey, Goldsworthy, Parliamentary Sovereignty: Contemporary Debates (Cambridge University Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

²¹² See, eg, Gummow, above n 181, 175–77; Selway, above n 182, 217. Contra Michael, Taggart, ‘“Australian Exceptionalism” in Judicial Review’ (2008) 36 Federal Law Review 1, 27Google Scholar.

²¹³ Official Records of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention (Melbourne, 8 February 1898) 688–90; Owen, Dixon, Jesting Pilate (Lawbook, 1965) 102Google Scholar.

²¹⁴ Gummow, above n 181, 176; Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106, 136 (Mason CJ), 182 (Dawson J).

²¹⁵ Gummow, above n 181, 176.

²¹⁶ See, eg, Agtrack (NT) Pty Ltd v Hatfield (2005) 223 CLR 251; Bass v Permanent Trustees Co Ltd (1999) 198 CLR 334.

²¹⁷ (2007) 228 CLR 651, 37 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Kirby, Hayne, Heydon and Crennan JJ), 676 (Callinan J concurring).

²¹⁸ (2003) 211 CLR 476, 513–514 (Gaudron, McHugh Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

²¹⁹ Justice Deane gives a fuller list of express entitlement under the Constitution in Street v Queensland Bar Association (1989) 168 CLR 461, 521–2.

²²⁰ As the Court's frequent references to the values underlying the ‘rule of law’ evidences, eg, S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476, 492; Abebe (1999) 197 CLR 510, 560 (Gummow and Hayne JJ) quoting R v Macfarlane; Ex parte O'Flanagan and O'Kelly (1923) 32 CLR 518, 541–2 (Issacs J).

²²¹ (1947) 74 CLR 31, 82.

²²² Kirk, above n 5.

²²³ Ibid 69.

²²⁴ See McDonald, above n 5, 27.

²²⁵ Ibid.

²²⁶ Lam (2003) 214 CLR 1, 23.

²²⁷ Kirk, above n 5, 70.

²²⁸ Ibid.

²²⁹ Ibid.

²³⁰ Ibid 71.

²³¹ Ibid 70.

²³² Kirk, above n 5, 70 (emphasis added).

²³³ Something to avoid in formulating constitutional principles: Cole v Whitfield (1988) 165 CLR 360, 402. This same weakness also infects the more Kneebone's theory, which, alike Kirk, considers that s 75(v) entrenches the substantive grounds of review: see Kneebone, above n 5, 102.

²³⁴ Aala (2000) 204 CLR 84. Nor its indication in the same direction in regard to rationality review: SZMDS (2010) 240 CLR 611, 645 (Crennan and Bell JJ) (illogicality); SZIAI (2009) 83 ALJR 1123, 1127 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ) (unreasonablness).

²³⁵ S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476, 512–13.

²³⁶ Ibid 513 (citations omitted).

²³⁷ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 69.

²³⁸ See generally, Basten, above n 5, 193–4.

²³⁹ Union Steamship Co of Australia Pty Ltd v King (1988) 166 CLR 1, 9 (Mason CJ, Wilson, Brennan, Deane, Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ) ('Union Steamship’).

²⁴⁰ John Finnis, ‘Common Law Constraints: Whose Common Good Counts?’ (Paper presented to University of Oxford Faculty of Law Studies Paper Series, 19 January 2008).

²⁴¹ Ibralebbe v The Queen [1964] AC 900, 923 (Viscount Radcliffe).

²⁴² R (Bancoult) v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs [2009] 1 AC 453.

²⁴³ Durham Holdings Pty Ltd v New South Wales (2001) 205 CLR 399 ('Durham Holdings’).

²⁴⁴ (1988) 166 CLR 1, 10.

²⁴⁵ Ibid (Mason CJ, Wilson, Brennan, Deane, Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ).

²⁴⁶ (2001) 205 CLR 399.

²⁴⁷ Coal Acquisition (Amendment) Act 1990 (NSW).

²⁴⁸ Durham Holdings (2001) 205 CLR 399, 409.

²⁴⁹ Ibid 410 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

²⁵⁰ The plurality cited the Kable principle and the implied freedom of political communication as examples (at 410). Both implied limitations are drawn from the text and structure of the Australian Constitution.

²⁵¹ (2001) 205 CLR 399, 410 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ). See also, Kable (1996) 189 CLR 51, 71 (Dawson J), 91 (Toohey J).

²⁵² Work Choices Case (2006) 229 CLR 1, 72 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon and Crennan JJ).

²⁵³ See Dyzenhaus, above n 24, 513.

²⁵⁴ John Austin, The Province of Jurisprudence Determined (1861).

²⁵⁵ Transcript of Proceedings, Plaintiff S157/2002 v Commonwealth (High Court of Australia, McHugh J, 3 September 2002).

²⁵⁶ See, eg, Lon, Fuller, The Morality of Law (Yale University Press, 1st ed, 1964)Google Scholar; HLA, Hart, The Concept of Law (Clarendon, 1961)Google Scholar; Joseph, Raz, Ethics in the Public Domain: Essays on the Morality of Law and Politics (Clarendon, 1994)Google Scholar.

²⁵⁷ Justice Gummow has, however, recently emphasised the utility of Austin's command theory, at least in relation to statutory law: see Momcilovic (2011) 280 ALR 221, 292–3 (Gummow J).

²⁵⁸ (1943) 67 CLR 58, 82 ('Grunseit’).

²⁵⁹ National Security Act 1939 (Cth) s 7.

²⁶⁰ Grunseit (1943) 67 CLR 58, 82 (Latham CJ: Starke J agreeing at 93, McTiernan J at 94).

²⁶¹ Ibid.

²⁶² Indeed, Latham CJ drew his criteria for legislative acts from a US case concerning unconstitutional delegations of power: ibid 81 (citing JW Hampton JR & Co v United States 276 US 394 (1928)).

²⁶³ See generally Leslie, Zines, The High Court and the Constitution (Federation, 5th ed, 2009)Google Scholar ch 9.

²⁶⁴ Constitution s 64: ‘no Minister of State shall hold office for a longer period than three months unless he is or becomes a senator or a member of the House of Representatives.'

²⁶⁵ (1954) 94 CLR 254, 275 (Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Fullagar and Kitto JJ) ('Boilermakers’). CfLaurence, Tribe, American Constitutional Law, (Foundation, 3rd ed, 2000) 141–52Google Scholar.

²⁶⁶ Boilermakers’ (1954) 94 CLR 254, 275–6.

²⁶⁷ Treaty of Peace Act 1919 (Cth) s 2.

²⁶⁸ (1921) 29 CLR 329 ('Roche’).

²⁶⁹ (1931) 44 CLR 492 ('Huddart’).

²⁷⁰ Ibid 512 (Dixon J: Rich J agreeing at 499), 518 (Evatt J).

²⁷¹ (1931) 46 CLR 73 ('Dignan’).

²⁷² Transport Workers Act 1928 (Cth) s 3.

²⁷³ (1931) 46 CLR 73, 100.

²⁷⁴ Ibid 83–4 (Gavan Duffy CJ and Starke J), 87 (Rich J), 100 (Dixon J), 128–9 (Evatt J).

²⁷⁵ Ibid 100 (emphasis added).

²⁷⁶ Ibid 101 (Rich J concurring at 86–87); Gavan Duffy and Starke JJ adopting substantially the same reasoning at 86–87.

²⁷⁷ Ibid.

²⁷⁸ (1969) 119 CLR 365 ('Giris’).

²⁷⁹ Section 99A.

²⁸⁰ Ibid 372 (Barwick CJ).

²⁸¹ Ibid 379 (Kitto J), 384 (Windeyer J).

²⁸² (1992) 177 CLR 248, 265.

²⁸³ Permanent Trustee v Commissioner of State Revenue (Vic) (2004) 220 CLR 388, 420–21 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Callinan and Heydon JJ).

²⁸⁴ See, eg, ibid; Giris (1969) 119 CLR 365.

²⁸⁵ Lam (2003) 214 CLR 1, 23.

²⁸⁶ Especially if, as some theorists have suggested, the definition of ‘law’ is the fulcrum upon which the concept of the ‘rule of law’ turns: Nigel, Simmonds, Law as a Moral Idea (Oxford University Press, 2005)Google Scholar ch 2.

²⁸⁷ S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476, 513.

²⁸⁸ James, Stellios, The Federal Judicature: Chapter III of the Constitution Commentary and Cases (Butterworths, 2010) 79–96Google Scholar.

²⁸⁹ Boilermakers’ (1954) 94 CLR 254, 269–70 (Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Fullagar and Kitto JJ).

²⁹⁰ Ibid 271–2.

²⁹¹ Section 72 provides for security of tenure and protected remuneration.

²⁹² S157 (2003) 211 CLR 476, 484 (Gleeson CJ), 512 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

²⁹³ Stellios, The Federal Judicature, above n 288, 213.

²⁹⁴ Ibid.

²⁹⁵ Such an interpretation is unobjectionable because it simply reflects the model of the rule of law underpinning the entrenched supervisory jurisdiction of the High Court and the State Supreme Courts: the judiciary has the final say on the lawfulness of administrative action.

²⁹⁶ See generally Aronson, ‘Jurisdictional Error Without the Tears', above n 39, 334.

²⁹⁷ Re Macks; Ex parte Saint (2000) 204 CLR 158, 236 (Gummow J) ('Re Macks’). See also, R v Gray; Ex parte Marsh (1985) 157 CLR 351, 393 (Dawson J) ('Marsh’).

²⁹⁸ Residual Assco Group Ltd v Spalvins (2000) 202 CLR 629, 637–641 (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Hayne and Callinan JJ).

²⁹⁹ Marsh (1985) 157 CLR 351, 393 (Dawson J).

³⁰⁰ Re McJannet; Ex Parte Minister for Employment Training & Industrial Relations (Qld) (1995) 184 CLR 620 ('McJannet’).

³⁰¹ Ibid 653 (Toohey, McHugh and Gummow JJ). The Commonwealth has exercised this power by enacting Pt VI of the Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth), which limits the subject-matter jurisdiction of all State Supreme Courts.

³⁰² Considered ‘axiomatic': Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1, 262 (Fullagar J).

³⁰³ (1995) 184 CLR 620, 652–3 (Toohey, McHugh and Gummow JJ), see also, 644 (Brennan CJ, Deane and Dawson JJ).

³⁰⁴ See, eg, Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) s 21(2); Federal Court of Australia Act 1975 (Cth); Supreme Court Act 1970 (NSW) s 22.

³⁰⁵ Re Macks (2000) 204 CLR 15.

³⁰⁶ Indeed, the plurality cited that case in support of its principle: (2003) 211 CLR 476, 513 (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

³⁰⁷ Either s 51(xxvii) (the ‘immigration and emigration’ power), or s 51(xix) (the ‘aliens’ power).

³⁰⁸ Stellios, The Federal Judicature, above n 288, 108: See, Re Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd; Ex parte Federated Miscellaneous Workers’ Union of Australia (1987) 163 CLR 656, 664 (Mason CJ, Wilson, Brennan, Deane, Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ).

³⁰⁹ Chu Kheng Lim v Minister for Immigration (1992) 176 CLR 1, 27 (Brennan, Deane and Dawson JJ); Attorney-General (Cth) v Breckler (1999) 197 CLR 83, 109 (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Hayne and Callinan JJ). See generally, Stellios, The Federal Judicature, above n 288, 214–21.

³¹⁰ R v Spicer; Ex parte Australian Builders’ Labourers’ Federation (1957) 100 CLR 277, 290 (Dixon J).

³¹¹ R v Spicer; Ex parte Waterside Workers’ Federation of Australia (1957) 100 CLR 312, 317 (Dixon CJ, Williams, Kitto and Taylor JJ); Cominos v Cominos (1927) 127 CLR 588, 592 (Walsh J), 598 (Gibbs J), 601 (Stephen J).

³¹² Thomas v Mowbray (2007) 233 CLR 307, 344 (Gummow and Crennan JJ). See generally Stellios, The Federal Judicature, above n 288, 190–200.

³¹³ Ibid 345.

³¹⁴ And such benefits should not be blithely assumed: see Will, Bateman, ‘Procedural Due Process under the Australian Constitution’ (2009) 31 Sydney Law Review 411, 431–2Google Scholar.

³¹⁵ (2006) 228 CLR 45 ('Forge’) cited in Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 580 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ.

³¹⁶ (1996) 189 CLR 51; H A Bachrach Pty Ltd v Queensland (1998) 195 CLR 54; North Australian Aboriginal Legal Aid Service Inc v Bradley (2004) 218 CLR 146; Fardon v Attorney-General (QLD) (2004) 223 CLR 575.

³¹⁷ See generally Stellios, The Federal Judicature, above n 288, 408–443; Bateman, ‘Procedural Due Process', above n 314, 436.

³¹⁸ International Finance Trust Company Ltd v New South Wales Crime Commission (2010) 240 CLR 319.

³¹⁹ Totani (2010) 242 CLR 1.

³²⁰ Wainohu v New South Wales (2011) 278 ALR 1 ('Wainohu’). In Wainohu the Court fused several of the principles developed in relation to federal courts concerning non-judicial powers conferred persona designata with the Kable principle. This fusion led to the conclusion that State judicial officers must give reasons for the exercise of certain non-judicial functions, even when those functions are carried out persona designata: see, (2011) 278 ALR 1, 29–30 (French CJ and Kiefel JJ), 36 (Gummow, Hayne, Crennan and Bell JJ).

³²¹ Forge (2006) 228 CLR 45 67-8 (Gleeson CJ), 75–6 (Gummow, Hayne and Crennan JJ); Anna, Dziedzic, ‘Forge v Australian Securities and Investments Commission: The Kable Principle and the Constitutional Validity of Acting Judges’ (2007) 35 Federal Law Review 129, 141Google Scholar.

³²² Bateman, ‘Procedural Due Process', above n 314, 435–38.

³²³ Kable (1996) 189 CLR 51.

³²⁴ Boilermakers’ (1956) 94 CLR 254, 268 (Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Fullagar and Kitto JJ); Totani (2010) 242 CLR 1, 37–9 (French CJ).

³²⁵ Bodruddaza (2007) 228 CLR 651, 37 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Kirby, Hayne, Heydon and Crennan JJ). See also, Enfield (2000) 199 CLR 135, 153 (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

³²⁶ Kirk (2010) 239 CLR 531, 580 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

³²⁷ Constitution s 71: The judicial power of the Commonwealth shall be vested in … such other federal courts as the Parliament creates': s 51(xxxix): ‘The Parliament shall have … power … with respect to … matters incidental to the execution of any power vested by this Constitution in the Parliament'. In the background of this reasoning is the seminal proposition that what the Parliament can do, it can undo: Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337, 356 (Brennan CJ and McHugh J) 369 (Gaudron J) 377 (Gummow and Hayne JJ). It should, however, be acknowledged that this principle may no longer possess the force it once did: see Roach v Electoral Commissioner (2007) 233 CLR 162; Rowe v Electoral Commissioner (2010) 271 ALR 1.

³²⁸ Robin, Creyke, ‘Administrative Justice: Beyond the Courtroom Door’ (2006) 12 Acta Juridica 257, 270Google Scholar.

³²⁹ James, Stellios, ‘The High Court's Recent Encounters with Section 80 Jury Trials’ (2005) 29 Criminal Law Journal 139, 149Google Scholar.

³³⁰ Brownlee v The Queen (2001) 207 CLR 278; Ng v The Queen (2003) 217 CLR 521. See generally, Stellios, The Federal Judicature, above n 288, 555–59.

³³¹ See Wainohu (2011) 278 ALR 1, 23 (French CJ and Kiefel J).

³³² Bateman, ‘Procedural Due Process', above n 314, 441.

³³³ Such a formulation was adopted by the plaintiffs in M61 (2010) 85 ALJR 133, 144. As noted in Part I, the Court rejected the plaintiff's constitutional challenge, it did not, however, reject their formulation of principle.

³³⁴ Oxford English Dictionary. The extent to which this conception of non-arbitrariness overlaps with that concept as it is utilised in respect of s 51(ii) remains an open inquiry: see Will Bateman, ‘The Constitution and Tax Laws’ (forthcoming).

³³⁵ Wainohu (2011) 278 ALR 1, 14 (French CJ and Kiefel J). Such flexible standards form the staple diet of the modern constitutional lawyer. Notable examples of such flexible tests include the test for constitutionality in respect of the implied freedom of political communication (Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520; Coleman v Power (2004) 220 CLR 1), the, still protean, test concerning the federal franchise (Roach v Electoral Commissioner (2007) 233 CLR 162; Rowe v Electoral Commissioner (2010) 273 ALR 1) and the Kable principle (Kable (1996) 189 CLR 51; Forge (2006) 228 CLR 45).

³³⁶ Wainohu (2011) 278 ALR 1, 14 (French CJ and Kiefel J).

³³⁷ Ibid 15.

³³⁸ Gypsy Jokers Motorcycle Club Inc v Commissioner of Police (2008) 234 CLR 532, 576 (Kirby J).

³³⁹ McDonald, above n 5, 29–31.

³⁴⁰ Ibid 30: Futuris (2008) 237 CLR 146, 167 (Gummow, Hayne, Heydon and Crennan JJ).

³⁴¹ As they have in almost all Australian jurisdictions: Aronson, Dyer and Groves, above n 18, 22–28, 53–79; Cane and McDonald, above n 49, 94.

³⁴² See also, Wainohu (2011) 278 ALR 1, 20 (French CJ and Kiefel J), 36 (Gummow, Hayne, Crennan and Bell JJ).

³⁴³ As was noted in Part II.1.

³⁴⁴ McDonald, above n 5, 32; Saunders, above n 4, 124.

³⁴⁵ Ibid 33.