Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-5r2nc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-29T00:19:51.607Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Conflicts and Choice of Law within the Australian Constitutional Context

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Jeremy Kirk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

According to the orthodox principles of private international law, as applied within Australia during the twentieth century, the different States are essentially to be regarded as foreign entities. At common law, the courts of one State will generally apply the statutory laws of another State to resolve a civil law dispute if directed to do so by the common law choice of law rules, but not otherwise. Yet federation was a eustatic event in the evolution of the Australian legal system, albeit that the sea change has taken some time to flow through to many areas.

Australian States are not foreign nations but sub-entities within one nation established and maintained by the Australian Constitution. The law to be applied when there is some competition between Australian legal rules cannot appropriately be dictated just by the common law. That raises constitutional questions by its very nature.

Type
Research Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 31 , Issue 2 , June 2003 , pp. 247 - 298
Copyright
Copyright © 2003 The Australian National University

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Thanks are due to Geoffrey Lindell, and to participants at the Public Law Weekend on 3 November 2001 at the Australian National University, for comments on an earlier draft of this paper.

References

1 (1988)169 CLR 41 ('Breavington').

2 (1999) 200 CLR 485('Lipohar').

3 (2000) 203 CLR 503 ('Pfeiffer').

4 Opeskin, Brian, 'Constitutional Dimensions of Choice of Law in Australia' (1992) 3 Public Law Review 152, 153Google Scholar.

5 Sykes, Edward Pryles, Michael, Australian Private International Law (3rd ed, 1991) 333, see generally at 329-34Google Scholar.

6 Thompson v Hill (1995) 38 NSWLR 714, 716-18.

7 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 556-8 [138]-[143]; Mobil Oil Australia Pty Ltd v Victoria (2002) 76 ALJR 926 ('Mobil Oil'), 941 [80].

8 Note Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 539 [82].

9 Sykes and Pryles, above n 5, 319.

10 Laurie v Carroll (1958) 98 CLR 310, 331 (Dixon CJ, Williams and Webb JJ). Also, eg, Pedersen v Young (1964) 110 CLR 162, 170 (Windeyer J), approved McKain v Miller (1991) 174 CLR 1 ('McKain'), 36 (Brennan, Dawson, Toohey and McHugh JJ).

11 (1870) LR 6 QB 1.

12 See, eg, Koop v Bebb (1951) 84 CLR 629, 642; Anderson v Eric Anderson Radio & TV Pty Ltd (1965) 114 CLR 20 ('Anderson'); McKain (1991) 174 CLR 1, 39 (Brennan, Dawson, Toohey and McHugh JJ).

13 (1988) 169 CLR 41.

14 (1991) 174 CLR 1, 39.

15 Ibid 34-7.

16 Note discussion in Christopher Gilbert, 'Extra-Territorial Laws and the Australian States' (1987) 17 Federal Law Review 25; Moshinsky, Mark, 'Extra-Territorial Laws and the Australian States' (1987) 61 Australian Law Journal 779Google Scholar.

17 See discussion in Union Steamship Co of Aust Pty Ltd v King (1988) 166 CLR 1 ('Union Steamship'), 9-14 (per curiam).

18 (1989) 168 CLR 340 ('Port MacDonnell').

19 Ibid 372 (per curiam); Union Steamship (1988) 166 CLR 1, 14.

20 (1988) 166 CLR 1, 14. Cf Moshinsky, above n 16, 782-5.

21 See also State Superannuation Authorities Board v Commissioner of State Taxation (WA) (1996) 189 CLR 253, 271 (Brennan CJ, Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ).

22 (1989) 168 CLR 340, 373-4 (per curiam).

23 (1988) 166 CLR, 1, 13, also 14, quoting Broken Hill South Ltd v Commissioner of Taxation (NSW) (1937) 56 CLR 337, 375.

24 See, eg, Fair Trading Act 1987 (NSW) s 42.

25 Jumbunna Coal Mine NL v Victorian Coal Miners Association (1908) 6 CLR 309, 363. This is reflected, to a degree, in many interpretation Acts: eg, Interpretation Act 1987 (NSW) s 12; Interpretation of Legislation Act 1984 (Vic) s 48.

26 Akai Pty Ltd v The People's Insurance Co Ltd (1996) 188 CLR 418 ('Akai'), 442-3 (Toohey,Gaudron and Gummow JJ).

27 See, eg, discussion in Sykes and Pryles, above n 5, 240-6; see further below Part 6.4.

28 Cf Polyukhovich v Commonwealth (1991) 172 CLR 501, 552 (Brennan J). Even the War Crimes Act 1945 (Cth) at issue there, which retrospectively applied to conduct in World War II in Europe, applied only to persons with a connection to Australia.

29 The Canadian approach, in contrast, is more restrictive: See discussion by Justice William Gummow, 'Full Faith and Credit in Three Federations' (1995) 46 South Carolina Law Review 979, 1013-14.

30 Note Gummow, ibid 1012.

31 See discussion by Justice Priestley, L J in 'A Federal Common Law in Australia?' (1995) 6 Public Law Review 221Google Scholar.

32 Sir Dixon, Owen, 'The Common Law as an Ultimate Constitutional Foundation', reproduced in Jesting Pilate (1965) 204-5Google Scholar.

33 Australian Consolidated Press Ltd v Uren [1969] 1 AC 590, 641-4.

34 (1997) 189 CLR 520, 563–6 ('Lange v ABC') (per curiam).

35 See authority gathered in Priestley, above n 31, fn 44. See also Kable v DPP (1996) 189 CLR 51, 112-15 (McHugh J), 137-9 (Gummow J).

36 Lipohar (1999) 200 CLR 485, 495-6 [8]-[10], 528-31 [109]-[110].

37 See Thompson v The Queen (1988) 169 CLR 1, 19 (Brennan J).

38 Ibid 24; Lipohar (1999) 200 CLR 485, 522-3 [94]-[96].

39 Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 (SA) s 5C; see Lipohar (1999) 200 CLR 485, 569-70 [215].

40 Lipohar (1999) 200 CLR 485, 503 [37] (Gleeson CJ), 526 [102]-[103], 515 [73], 532 [116] (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ), 551 [165] 552-3 [169]-[170] (Kirby J).

41 Ibid 552-3 [170].

42 Ibid 500 [24] (Gleeson CJ), 505-10 [43]-[57] (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ), 552 [167] (Kirby J).

43 Ibid 584 [259], generally 574-84 [230]-[261].

44 Ibid 513 [67], 517 [80], 522 [92] , 531-2 [112]-[116].

45 Ibid 531-2 [112]-[114].

46 Ibid 510 [59], 534-5 [123].

47 Ibid 522 [93], 534-5 [121]-[124].

48 Ibid 514 [70], 532 [116].

49 Ibid 552-3 [170] (Kirby J); see also 500 [24] (Gleeson CJ).

50 Ibid 583 [254].

51 Ibid 500 [24] (Gleeson CJ); 552-3 [170], 557 [179]-[180], 560-1 [191], 563-5 [197]-[201] (Kirby J); 583-5 [254]-[263] (Callinan J).

52 Ibid 501-3 [27]-[39].

53 Ibid 588-9 [269]-[270].

54 Ibid 557-64 [181]-[200].

55 Ibid 543 [144].

56 Lipohar (1999) 200 CLR 485, 534 [120], generally 532 [116]-[120].

57 Workers Compensation Act 1987 (NSW) Part 5.

58 (2000) 203 CLR 503, 544 [102] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ), 562-3 [157] (Kirby J).

59 (2000) 203 CLR 503, 576 [201]-[202].

60 (1993) 176 CLR 433.

61 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 543-4 [99]-[100], 544 [102] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ) 554 [133]-[134], 563 [161] (Kirby J), 574 [192] (Callinan J). See also McKain (1991) 174 CLR 1, 26-7 (Mason CJ).

62 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 532 [58]-[59] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

63 Ibid 532-3 [60].

64 (1997) 189 CLR 520; Ibid 524 [34], 534-5 [66]-[71] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ), 557 [142]-[143].

65 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 534-5 [67] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ), see also 549-551 [119]-[124] (Kirby J).

66 Ibid 533 [63] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ), approving Merwin Pastoral Co Pty Ltd v Moolpa Pastoral Co Pty Ltd (1933) 48 CLR 565 ('Merwin Pastoral'), 577, 587-8.

67 Ibid 528 [44] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ); also 550-1 [123], 552 [126], 553 [129] (Kirby J).

68 Ibid 534 [65], 535 [70] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

69 Ibid 535 [70].

70 Ibid 546-7 [110], 556-7 [138]-[143]; Mobil Oil (2002) 76 ALJR 926, 941 [80].

71 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 534 [65] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ); see also 550-1 [121]-[124] (Kirby J).

72 Ibid 538 [79]-[80] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

73 Ibid 539 [82].

74 Ibid 536-7 [75], 540 [87].

75 Ibid 541 [91] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ); 551 [123] (Kirby J).

76 (2002) 76 ALJR 551 ('Renault').

77 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 528 [44] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ); see also 551 [123], 553 [129]-[130] (Kirby J).

78 Merwin Pastoral (1933) 48 CLR 565, 577, 587-8.

79 (1965) 114 CLR 20.

80 Ibid 24-25 (Barwick CJ ), 32-3 (Kitto J), 37 (Taylor J), 38-9 (Menzies J), 45-6 (Windeyer J).

81 Ibid 37 (Taylor J), also 33 (Kitto J), 45 (Windeyer J).

82 (1991) 174 CLR 1, 37.

83 (1988) 169 CLR 41, 81-3; see also 114-17 (Brennan J), 148-51 (Dawson J).

84 Ibid 81 (Mason CJ), 96-7 (Wilson and Gaudron JJ), 116 (Brennan J), 136-7 (Deane J), 150 (Dawson J).

85 Previously State and Territorial Law and Records Recognition Act 1901 (Cth) s 18.

86 Varawa v Howard Smith & Co Ltd (1911) 13 CLR 35, 69 (O'Connor J); Anderson (1965) 114 CLR 20, 45 (Windeyer J).

87 (1988) 169 CLR 41, 121.

88 Ibid 120-4.

89 Ibid 122.

90 Ibid 123.

91 Ibid.

92 (1984) 158 CLR 447, see especially 467, 477-9.

93 Breavington (1988) 169 CLR 41, 123.

94 Ibid 124

95 Ibid 120-1.

96 Ibid 125, 128.

97 Ibid 128.

98 Ibid 129, 135.

99 Ibid 137.

100 Ibid 136.

101 Ibid.

102 Ibid 137-8.

103 Ibid 139.

104 Ibid 88.

105 Ibid 95-6.

106 Ibid 98.

107 Ibid.

108 McKain (1991) 174 CLR 1, 56. See also Stevens v Head (1993) 176 CLR 433, 464.

109 McKain (1991) 174 CLR 1, 46, 53.

110 Ibid 56 (Gaudron J).

111 Opeskin, above n 4, 164.

112 Stephen Gageler has argued for a similar approach to the 'full effect' construction: 'Private Intra-National Law: Choice or Conflict, Common Law or Constitution?' (2003) 23 Australian Bar Review 184. A somewhat similar view in the American context is put by Laycock, Douglas, 'Equal Citizens of Equal and Territorial States: The Constitutional Foundations of Choice of Law' (1992) 92 Columbia Law Review 249CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For other views again of the operation of s 118 see, eg, Sykes and Pryles, above n 5, 329-34, Opeskin, above n 4, 173-80; Whitelaw, Georgina, 'Interstate Conflicts of Laws and Section 118' (1994) 5 Public Law Review 238, 241-2, 248-51Google Scholar.

113 (2000) 203 CLR 503, 528 [43].

114 See similarly McKain (1991) 174 CLR 1, 55 (Gaudron J).

115 Note similarly Harris v Harris [1947] VLR 44, 57-9 (Fullagar J).

116 (1989) 168 CLR 461.

117 Ibid 485.

118 Sykes and Pryles, above n 5, 321-3, 334; Gummow, above n 29, 1004.

119 (1987) 169 CLR 41, 129; note also Stevens v Head (1993) 176 CLR 433, 464 (Gaudron J).

120 As to which, see Jeremy Kirk, 'Constitutional Interpretation and a Theory of Evolutionary Originalism' (1999) 27 Federal Law Review 323, 354-7, 362-3.

121 Official Report of the National Australasian Convention Debates (1986) 1004-6 (Adelaide session).

122 Ibid 1005, see also 1006.

123 Note Harvard Law Review, 'Developments in the Law-The Law of Family and Marriage' (2003) 116 Harvard Law Review 1996, 2028.

124 Chicago & Alton Railroads v Wiggins Ferry Co, 119 US 615 (1887), 622.

125 Note discussion by Laycock, above n 112, 300-1.

126 See discussion in Pryles, Michael Hanks, Peter, Federal Conflict of Laws (1974) 64-5Google Scholar; Cowen, Zelman, 'Full Faith and Credit: The Australian Experience' in Rae Else-Mitchell (ed), Essays on the Australian Constitution (1961, 2nd ed) 298-301Google Scholar.

127 Pryles and Hanks, above n 126, 66. The American framers appear to have been similarly hazy: Justice Robert Jackson, 'Full Faith and Credit – The Lawyer's Clause of the Constitution' (1945) 45 Columbia Law Review 1, 6; note also Sun Oil Co v Wortman ('Sun Oil Co'), 486 US 717 (1988) 723.

128 Note Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd (The Engineers Case) (1920) 28 CLR 129, 148-9.

129 Sykes and Pryles, above n 5, 326, 328.

130 See Voth v Manildra Flour Mills (1991) 171 CLR 538, 567-9; Renault (2002) 76 ALJR 551, 565[74]; Dow Jones Ltd v Gutnick (2002) 77 ALJR 255, 263[43].

131 (1997) 191 CLR 471, 527-8. Note similarly Re E & B Chemicals and Wool Treatment Pty Ltd [1939] SASR 441, 443-5.

132 (2000) 203 CLR 503, 556-7 [139]; see also Breavington (1988) 169 CLR 41, 150 (Dawson J).

133 Sykes and Pryles, above n 5, 326.

134 Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1, 193 (Dixon J); Theophanous v Herald & Weekly Times Ltd (1993) 182 CLR 104, 196 (McHugh J); Re Residential Tenancies Tribunal; Ex parte Defence Housing Authority (1996) 190 CLR 410, 443-4 (Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ), 507 (Kirby J); Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337, 381 [89] (Gummow and Hayne JJ); Abebe v Commonwealth (1999) 197 CLR 510, 560-1 [137]-[139] (Gummow and Hayne JJ), note also 586 [220] (Kirby J); Plaintiff S157/2002 v Commonwealth (2003) 77 ALJR 454474 [103]-[104] (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne JJ).

135 Raz, Joseph, 'The Rule of Law and its Virtue' (1977) 93 Law Quarterly Review 195, 198Google Scholar (emphasis omitted); see also Jeremy Waldron, 'The Rule of Law in Contemporary Liberal Theory' (1989) 2 Ratio Juris 79, 81, 84-5.

136 (2000) 203 CLR 503, 528 [44] (emphasis added).

137 Kirk, Jeremy, 'Administrative Justice and the Australian Constitution' in John McMillan and Robin Creyke (eds), Administrative Justice–The Core and the Fringe (2000) 96-8Google Scholar, generally 86- 98.

138 Cf Breavington (1988) 169 CLR 41, 117 (Brennan J).

139 (1991) 174 CLR 1, 36.

140 Note Gummow, above n 29, 1002-3.

141 (1996) 189 CLR 51, 101-3 (Gaudron J), 111-15 (McHugh J), 137-9 (Gummow J).

142 (1997) 189 CLR 520, 564.

143 Jackson, above n 127, 30; note also Cowen, above n 126, 326.

144 Koop v Bebb (1951) 84 CLR 629, 643-4 (Dixon, Williams, Fullagar and Kitto JJ).

145 (1965) 114 CLR 20, 33, 37, 45.

146 Guiness v Miller, 291 F 769 (1923) 770 (Learned Hand J).

147 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 534 [65], 536 [74] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ); note also Whitelaw, above n 112, 244.

148 Opeskin, above n 4, 163; Friedrich Juenger, 'Tort Choice of Law in a Federal System' (1997) 19 Sydney Law Review 529, 537-8.

149 (2000) 203 CLR 503, 570 [184].

150 Ibid 570-1 [184].

151 See, eg, discussion in Renault (2002) 76 ALJR 551, 561-3 [52]-[60] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

152 Juenger, above n 148, 543.

153 (1933) 48 CLR 565.

154 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 530 [53] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ); Australian Law Reform Commission, The Judicial Power of the Commonwealth, Report No. 92 (2001) 558-9 [30.16]-[30.17].

155 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 530 [53] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and HayneJJ).

156 See generally ALRC, Report No. 92, above n 154, chapters 2 and 30.

157 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 531-2 [55]-[58] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ), noting Musgrave v Commonwealth (1937) 57 CLR 514. See also Kruger v Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1, 139 (Gaudron J).

158 (2000) 203 CLR 503, 532 [59].

159 Breavington (1988) 169 CLR 41, 88 (Wilson and Gaudron JJ), 122 (Deane J); cf Anderson (1965) 114 CLR 20, 30 (Kitto J).

160 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 531 [56] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ); ASIC v Edensor Nominees Pty Ltd (2001) 204 CLR 559, 587 [57] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron and Gummow JJ), cf 639 [219] (Hayne and Callinan JJ).

161 Northern Territory v GPAO (1999) 196 CLR 553, 588 [80] (Gleeson CJ and Gummow J), 606 [135] (Gaudron J), 650 [254] (Hayne J); Austral Pacific Group Ltd (in liq) v Airservices Australia (2000) 203 CLR 136, 144 [17] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ), 155 [53] (McHugh J).

162 Cf Gageler, above n 112, 188.

163 Cf analogously Dao v Australian Postal Commission (1987) 162 CLR 317, 331-2.

164 286 US 145 (1932) ('Bradford').

165 As noted by a unanimous Court in Franchise Tax Board of California v Hyatt, 538 US (2003) judgment transcript 6.

166 306 US 493 (1939).

167 Ibid 501.

168 449 US 302 (1981).

169 Ibid 313. See also Phillips Petroleum v Shutts, 472 US 797, 818-23 (1985).

170 Allstate Insurance Co v Hague, 449 US 302, 308 n 10 and 312 n 15 (1981).

171 486 US 717 (1988).

172 486 US 717, 727 (1988).

173 538 US (2003) judgment transcript 5-7.

174 Ibid 9.

175 ALRC, Report No. 92, above n 152, 610 [34.71], also, 608 [34.60].

176 (2002) 76 ALJR 551, 563 [63] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

177 [1971] AC 356.

178 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 538 [78]-[80] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ); Renault (2002) 76 ALJR 551, 563 [63]-[66], 565 [75] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ), 573 [115], 574-5 [121]-[123] (Kirby J); Tolofson v Jensen [1994] 3 SCR 1022, 1062.

179 Tolofson v Jensen [1994] 3 SCR 1022, 1061.

180 Cf Breavington (1988) 169 CLR 41, 113-14 (Brennan J); also, analogously Perre v Apand Pty Ltd (1999) 198 CLR 180, 215-23 [88]-[113] (McHugh J).

181 ALRC, Choice of Law, Report No 58 (1992), 61-2 [6.63]-[6.65] and 175 [Appendix B, cl 6(8)].

182 (2002) 76 ALJR 551, 561 [53], also 563 [60] and 565 [73] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ); note also 574 [122] (Kirby J).

183 306 US 493 (1939) 501.

184 Cf Zines, Leslie, The High Court and the Constitution (1997, 4th ed) 76-7, 283-4Google Scholar.

185 (1988) 169 CLR 41, 77–8. Cf Peter Nygh, 'Full Faith and Credit: A Constitutional Rule for Conflict Resolution' (1991) 13 Sydney Law Review 415, 415-16.

186 Harris v Harris [1947] VLR 44, 58 (Fullagar J); note also Jackson, above n 125, 18. Cf Breavington (1988) 169 CLR 41, 81-3 (Mason CJ).

187 See discussions in Laycock, above n 112, 290-1; Roger C Cramton, David P Currie and Herma Hill Kay, Conflict of Laws: Cases-Comments-Questions (1981, 3rd ed) 425.

188 McKain (1991) 174 CLR 1, 46 and 53 (Deane J), 56 (Gaudron J).

189 See Franchise Tax Board of California v Hyatt, 538 US (2003) judgment transcript 4.

190 Ibid 10.

191 [1982] VR 437.

192 Ibid 443-4 (Murphy J), agreeing 463 (Starke J); 462 (Marks J).

193 Ibid.

194 (2000) 203 CLR 503, 535 [67] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ), 549-551 [119]-[124] (Kirby J).

195 Note (1999) 200 CLR 485, 503 [37] (Gleeson CJ), 526 [102]-[103] (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ), 551 [165] (Kirby J).

196 See, eg, Bath v Alston Holdings Pty Ltd (1988) 165 CLR 411; Castlemaine Tooheys Ltd v South Australia (1990) 169 CLR 436; Street v Queensland Bar Association (1989) 168 CLR 461; Goryl v Greyhound Australia Pty Ltd (1994) 179 CLR 463.

197 Harvard Law Review, above n 121, 2045.

198 486 US 717 (1988) 727-8.

199 For example, Alaska Packers Association v Industrial Accident Commission, 294 US 532 (1935) 547.

200 (1988) 169 CLR 41, 82 (Mason CJ). The decision of Shepherdson J in Jellyn Pty Ltd v Horwath & Horwath (Qld) Pty Ltd (1993) ATPR ¶41-284, 41,777 appears to be an example of such an erroneous application of s 118.

201 (1988) 169 CLR 41, 83.

202 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 557 [140]. See further Juenger, above n 148, 534-8; Stone, Adrienne, 'Choice of Law Rules, the Constitution and the Common Law' (2001) 12 Public Law Review 9, 12Google Scholar.

203 (1951) 84 CLR 629, 650-1.

204 ALRC, Report No. 58, above n 181.

205 ALRC, Report No. 92, above n 154, 586-7 [33.9]-[33.10], 588 [33.19], 591-2 [33.34]-[33.35].

206 See discussion in ALRC, Report No. 92, above n 154, 564-5 [30.44]-[30.49].

207 Note Breavington (1988) 169 CLR 41, 99-100 (Wilson and Gaudron JJ).

208 Breavington (1988) 169 CLR 41, 79.

209 (1994) 179 CLR 463, 476.

210 See factor (4) in Kirk, Jeremy, 'Constitutional Implications (I): Nature, Legitimacy, Classification, Examples' (2000) 24 Melbourne University Law Review 645, 656Google Scholar.

211 Breavington (1988) 169 CLR 41, 136.

212 See similarly Pryles and Hanks, above n 126, 91, 171–2.

213 Sykes and Pryles, above n 5, 319.

214 Note, eg, Mobil Oil (2002) 76 ALJR 926, 936 [48] (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ), 953 [138] (Kirby J), 964 [189]-[191] (Callinan J).

215 Recognised by Kirby J in Mobil Oil (2002) 76 ALJR 926, 946 [107]-[108].

216 The Engineers Case (1920) 28 CLR 129, 151-2 (Knox CJ, Isaacs, Rich and Starke JJ).

217 Foreign Proceedings (Excess of Jurisdiction) Act 1984 (Cth).

218 (1997) 191 CLR 471, 527-8.

219 Recognised in Kay's Leasing Corp Pty Ltd v Fletcher (1964) 116 CLR 124, 143 (Kitto J); see also Akai (1996) 188 CLR 418, 435, 442-3 (Toohey, Gaudron and Gummow JJ).

220 See, analogously, Francis Travel Marketing Pty Ltd v Virgin Atlantic Airways Ltd (1996) 39 NSWLR 160, 164 (Gleeson CJ).

221 McKain (1991) 174 CLR 1, 56.

222 (1988) 169 CLR 41, 128-9, 140.

223 (1992) 27 NSWLR 78 ('Brownlie').

224 (2002) 76 ALJR 926, 931 [16].

225 Breavington (1988) 169 CLR 41, 136.

226 Cf Jackson, above n 127, 12.

227 Sykes and Pryles, above n 5, 332.

228 A possibility suggested to the author by Dr Gary Rumble.

229 Gummow, above n 29, 990, 1010.

230 James Hardie & Co Pty Ltd v Barry (2000) 50 NSWLR 357, 376 [82] (Mason P); Gageler, above n 112, 186.

231 Note Nicholas v The Queen (1998) 193 CLR 173, 232 [143] (Gummow J); Gummow, above n 29, 1005.

232 See discussion in University of Wollongong v Metwally (1984) 158 CLR 447, 463-4 (Mason J).

233 (1989) 168 CLR 340, 374. Note also discussion of the possibility in State Authorities Superannuation Board v Commissioner of State Taxation (WA) (1996) 189 CLR 253, 285-6 (McHugh and Gummow JJ); Mobil Oil (2002) 76 ALJR 926, 946-7 [108]-[110] (Kirby J).

234 See discussion in Kirk, above n 210, 673-4.

235 Victoria v Commonwealth (1937) 58 CLR 618 ('Kakariki'), 630 (Dixon J), approved Telstra Corporation Ltd v Worthing (1999) 197 CLR 61, 76-7 [28] (per curiam).

236 Kakariki (1937) 58 CLR 618, 630 (Dixon J).

237 Commonwealth v Western Australia (1999) 196 CLR 392, 439-442 [138]-[147] (Gummow J).

238 (1989) 168 CLR 340, 374.

239 Cf Kirk, above n 210, 661-8.

240 Union Steamship (1988) 166 CLR 1, 14 (per curiam), discussed in Part 1.3 above.

241 (1988) 169 CLR 41, 129.

242 McKain (1991) 174 CLR 1, 46, 53.

243 Ibid 56.

244 Ibid.

245 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 536-7 [75], also 534-5 [67] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

246 Note Pacific Employers Insurance Co v Industrial Accident Commission, 306 US 493 (1939) 502-3; cf Allstate Insurance Co v Hague, 449 US 302 (1981).

247 Gageler, above n 112, 188.

248 Note Mobil Oil (2002) 76 ALJR 926, 952 [131] (Kirby J).

249 For example, see analysis in Ex parte McLean (1930) 43 CLR 472, 483 (Dixon J).

250 Breavington (1988) 169 CLR 41, 137.

251 Otto Freund, Kahn, General Problems of Private International Law (1976) 263Google Scholar.

252 Cf Goryl v Greyhound Australia (1994) 179 CLR 463, 479-80 (Deane and Gaudron JJ).

253 In relation to conflicts between Commonwealth and Territorial laws, see Northern Territory v GPAO (1999) 196 CLR 553, 578-583 [42]-[61] (Gleeson CJ and Gummow J), 636-638 [219]-[223] (Kirby J).

254 Lamshed v Lake (1958) 99 CLR 132.

255 Ibid 141, 146 and 148 (Dixon CJ).

256 Cf Opeskin, above n 4, 181-2.

257 Breavington (1988) 169 CLR 41, 115-6 (Brennan J), 148-9 (Dawson J).

258 Ibid 137-8.

259 Barcelo v Electrolytic Zinc Co of Australasia Ltd (1932) 48 CLR 391, 427-8; Wanganui-Rangitikei Electric Power Board v Australian Mutual Provident Society (1934) 50 CLR 581, 600-1.

260 Akai (1996) 188 CLR 418, 442-3 (Toohey, Gaudron and Gummow JJ).

261 (1964) 110 CLR 162.

262 Ibid 167.

263 McKain (1991) 174 CLR 1, 61.

264 As is arguably implicit in Akai (1996) 188 CLR 418, 443 (Toohey, Gaudron and Gummow JJ). Note also Stevens v Head (1993) 176 CLR 433, 467-8 (Gaudron J).

265 Re Tracey; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518, 547 (Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ) and 574-5 (Brennan and Toohey JJ).

266 See Anderson (1965) 114 CLR 20, 33 (Kitto J).

267 Cf Bropho v Western Australia (1990) 171 CLR 1, 23 (per curiam).

268 Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 548-9 [116]-[117].

269 Ibid 542 [94] and 543 [99] respectively.

270 Ibid 542 [94].

271 (2001) 204 CLR 559.

272 Ibid 588 [59], 593 [72] and 594-5 [77] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron and Gummow JJ), 612 [137] and 614 [145] (McHugh J).

273 Ibid 591 [68] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron and Gummow JJ), also 613 [141] (McHugh J).

274 Ibid 593 [72]-[73] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron and Gummow JJ), 612 [137] (McHugh J).

275 Ibid 588-9 [59]-[60] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron and Gummow JJ), 612 [138] (McHugh J).

276 Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth) ss 38, 39 and 39B; Jurisdiction of Courts (Cross-Vesting) Act 1987 (Cth) ss 3 and 6.

277 Note the quotation from Glanville Williams in Mark Leeming, 'Resolving Conflicts between State Criminal Laws' (1994) 12 Australian Bar Review 107, 108.

278 For example, Brownlie (1992) 27 NSWLR 78, 83 (Gleeson CJ); Lipohar (1999) 200 CLR 485, 527 [106] (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

279 Lipohar (1999) 200 CLR 485, 526-8 [104]-108] (Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ), approved Pfeiffer (2000) 203 CLR 503, 521 [25] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

280 Lipohar (1999) 200 CLR 485, 534 [120].

281 Brownlie (1992) 27 NSWLR 78, 83 (Gleeson CJ); Akai (1996) 188 CLR 418, 443 (Toohey, Gaudron and Gummow JJ).

282 Note Dempster v National Companies and Securities Commission (1993) 9 WAR 215 (Full Supreme Court), where a variant of this occurred.

283 Byrnes v The Queen (1999) 199 CLR 1; Bond v The Queen (2000) 201 CLR 213; Macleod v ASIC (2002) 76 ALJR 1445.

284 For example, Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 (SA) s 5C, as applied in Lipohar. See discussion in Matthew Goode, 'The Tortured Tale of Criminal Jurisdiction' (1997) 21 Melbourne University Law Review 411, 457-9.

285 See Leeming, above n 277, 114-15.

286 (1992) 27 NSWLR 78.

287 (1992) 27 NSWLR 78, 85 (Gleeson CJ).

288 Dicey, A V, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (8th ed, 1915) 183-4Google Scholar.

289 (1992) 27 NSWLR 78, 82-3 (Gleeson CJ).

290 (1999) 200 CLR 485, 532-4 [116]-[120].

291 Section 113 provides as follows: 'All fermented, distilled, or other intoxicating liquids passing into any State or remaining therein for use, consumption, sale, or storage, shall be subject to the laws of the State as if such liquids had been produced in that State.'