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The Australian Constitution 1951-1976

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2025

Leslie Zines
Leslie Zines*
Affiliation:
Law School, Australian National University
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Abstract

The Commonwealth of Australia is 75 years old. Professor Zines, in this Article, looks at the record of judicial review of the Constitution over the past quarter century. He examines those areas (a) that have, during that time, illustrated, or provided the basis for, the development of general principles; (b) that seem to have particular political or social significance; or (c) that help in understanding the role and technique of the High Court.

Type
Research Article
Information
Federal Law Review , Volume 7 , Issue 2 , June 1976 , pp. 89 - 144
Copyright
Copyright © 1976 The Australian National University

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References

1 Sawer, (ed.), Federalism (1952)Google Scholar; Else-Mitchell, (ed.), Essays on the Australian Constitution (1951) (2nd ed. 1961)Google Scholar; Bailey, “Fifty Years of the Australian Constitution” (1951) 25 A.L.J. 314.Google Scholar

2 Amalgamated Society of Engineers v. Adelaide Steamship Co. Ltd (1920) 28 C.L.R. 129.

3 South Australia v. The Commonwealth (1942) 65 C.L.R. 373.

4 Melbourne Corporation v. The Commonwealth (1947) 74 C.L.R. 31.

5 Anderson, “The States and Relations with the Commonwealth” in ElseMitchell, op. cit. 93, 101-108.Google Scholar

6 Bank of New South Wales v. The Commonwealth (1948) 76 C.L.R. 1 (HighCourt); (1949) 79 C.L.R. 497 (Privy Council).

7 E.g. Sawer, op. cit. 221-222.

8 There is, however, some question as to the validity of the 1975 Act as it purports to abolish all appeals from the High Court, while s. 74 provides that “The Parliament may make laws limiting the matters” in which special leave to appeal from the High Court to the Judicial Committee may be asked. In Kitano v. The Commonwealth (1975) 5 A.L.R. 440, the Privy Council upheld the validity of the Privy Council (Limitation of Appeals) Act 1968 (Cth) which abolished all appeals from the High Court except where the decision of the High Court was on appeal from a State Supreme Court not exercising federal jurisdiction. Their Lordships indicated that they did not have to consider whether or not the word “limiting” extended to authorise complete abolition of the right to seek special leave to appeal from a decision of the High Court.

9 Menzies, D “Australia and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council” (1968) 42 A.L.J. 79.Google Scholar

10 (1947) 74 C.L.R. 31, 79-80.

11 (1944) 69 C.L.R. 457, 471.

12 Bailey, “Fifty Years of the Australian Constitution” (1951) 25 A.L.J. 314, 332.Google Scholar Latham, “Interpretation of the Constitution” in Else-Mitchell, op. cit. 1, 2-3.Google Scholar

13 R. v. Barger (1908) 6 C.L.R. 41.

14 Bank Nationalisation Case (1948) 76 C.L.R. 1, 183-185; Latham, op. cit. 16; O'Sullivan v. Noarlunga Meat Ltd (1954) 92 C.L.R. 565,595.

15 (1935) 54 C.L.R. 69, 90.

16 Herald & Weekly Times Ltd v. The Commonwealth (1966) 115 C.L.R. 418.

17 Id. 434.

17A Murphyores Incorporated Pty Ltd v. The Commonwealth (1976) 9 A.LR. 199.

18 (1965) 114 C.L.R. 1.

19 Id. 10-12 per Kitto J., 15 per Taylor J.

20 Id. 17-18.

21 Bank Nationalisation Case (1948) 76 C.L.R. 1, 183-184.

22 State Banking Case (1947) 74 C.L.R. 31; Uther v. Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1947) 74 C.L.R. 508; Essendon Corporation v. Criterion Theatres Ltd (1947) 74 C.L.R. 1.

23 Zincs, “Sir Owen Dixon's Theory of Federalism” (1965) 1 F.L.Rev. 221.Google Scholar

24 Victoria v. The Commonwealth (1971) 122 C.L.R. 353.

25 (1947) 74 C.L.R. 508.

26 (1962) 108 C.L.R. 372.

27 Id. 377.

28 (1953) 89 C.L.R. 229.

29 Id. 259-260; The Commonwealth v. Cigamatic Pty Ltd (1962) 108 C.L.R. 372, 378 per Dixon C.J.

30 (1925) 36 C.L.R. 170.

31 Howard, Australian Federal Constitutional Law (2nd ed. 1972) 102-134Google Scholar, Lane, The Australian Federal System (1972) 806-809Google Scholar; Sawer, “State Statutes and the Commonwealth” (1961) 1 Tasmanian University Law Review 580Google Scholar; Zines, op. cit. 221; Evans, “Rethinking Commonwealth Immunity” (1972) 8 Melbourne University Law Review 521.Google Scholar

32 (1920) 28 C.L.R. 129, 155.

33 West v. Commissioner of Taxation (N.S.W.) (1937) 56 C.L.R. 657; Australian Coastal Shipping Commission v. O'Reilly (1962) 107 C.L.R. 46.

34 State Banking Case (1947) 74 C.L.R. 31, 50-51; West v. Commissioner of Taxation (N.S.W.) (1937) 56 C.L.R. 657, 668-669.

35 (1971) 122 C.L.R. 353, 372-373.

36 (1971) 124 C.L.R. 468.

37 (1909) 8 C.L.R. 330, 410-411.

38 (1971) 124 C.L.R. 468, 510.

39 Payroll Tax Case (1971) 122 C.L.R. 353, 370-372.

40 Western Australia v. The Commonwealth (1975) 7 A.LR. 159 (this case is also cited in a later part of this Article as the Electoral Act Case); Coper, “The Constitutional Crisis” [1975] Australian Current Law Digest DT 281, 284-285.

41 (1975) 7 A.L.R. 159, 172.

42 Id. 175.

43 Id. 176.

44 Ibid.

45 Id. 187.

46 Id. 189.

47 Interestingly enough Barwick C.J. used this very argument in Attorney-General for Australia v. The Commonwealth (1975) 7 A.L.R. 593 relating to the interpretation of s. 24 of the Constitution. His Honour said that “unlike the case of the American Constitution, the Australian Constitution is built upon confidence in a system of parliamentary government with ministerial responsibility”. (at 606).

48 Higgins' view of a democratic federal State was one in which a State Parliament was responsible to the electorate of the State in respect of State matters and the central Parliament to the national electorate in respect of national matters: Unpublished thesis, Coward, Henry Bournes Higgins and the Australian Constitution (A.N.U. 1975). There is no denying, of course, that without a Senate consisting of an equal number of senators from each State, the federation of the Australian Colonies would have been extremely unlikely. See, generally, Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention, Sydney, 1897, 258-355.

49 Wheare, Federal Government (1946) 11-16.Google Scholar

50 Victoria v. The Commonwealth (Petroleum and Minerals Authority Case) (1975) 7 A.L.R. 1, 50.

51 (1936) 55 C.L.R. 608.

52 Id. 669.

53 Bailey, “Fifty Years of the Australian Constitution” (1951) 25 A.L.J. 314, 322.Google Scholar

54 Ibid.

55 Airlines of New South Wales Pty Ltd v. New South Wales (No. 2) (1965) 113 C.L.R. 54.

56 Id. 85.

57 Ibid.

58 New South Wales v. The Commonwealth (The Seabed Case) (1975) 8 A.L.R. 1, 71-72.

59 Id. 118.

60 Id. 6.

61 Id. 79.

62 Id. 5-6 per Barwick C.J., 91-92 per Mason J., 112-114 per Jacobs J., 117-120 per Murphy J.

63 (1960) 106 C.L.R. 186.

64 E.g. Bonser v. La Macchia (1969) 122 C.L.R. 177, 185 per Barwick C.J., 222 per Windeyer J.

65 (1975) 8 A.L.R. 1, 15-17 per Barwick C.J., 119 per Murphy J.

66 O'Connell, ''The Evolution of Australia's International Personality” and Sawer, “Australian Constitutional Law in Relation to International Relations and International Law” both in O'Connell, (ed.), International Law in Australia (1965) (16 and 37 respectively).Google Scholar

67 This issue is discussed by Sawer in O'Connell, op. cit. Ch. II.

68 (1949) 79 C.L.R. 121.

69 Id. 136.

70 Id. 149.

71 The Commonwealth v. Queensland (1975) 7 A.L.R. 351, 380-381.

72 H.R. Deb. 1974, Vol. 88, 6.

73 (1975) 7 A.L.R. 351, 381.

74 Ibid.

75 Australian Communist Party v. The Commonwealth (1951) 83 C.L.R. 1.

76 Attorney-General (Vic.) v. The Commonwealth (1945) 71 C.L.R. 237.

77 Id. 266 per Starke J.

78 Id. 269 per Dixon J.

79 Ibid.

80 (1975) 8 A.L.R. 1, 28-29.

81 Id. 91.

82 Victoria v. The Commonwealth (1975) 7 A.L.R. 277.

83 Id. 304-305 per McTiernan J., 344 per Murphy J.

84 Id. 321-322.

85 Id. 299 per Barwick C.J., 308-310 per Gibbs J.

86 Id. 326.

87 Id. 340.

88 Id. 327.

89 Ibid.

90 Bailey, op. cit. 322-323.

91 W. & A. McArthur Ltd v. Queensland (1920) 28 C.L.R. 530.

92 (1955) 93 C.L.R. 55.

93 (1953) 88 C.L.R. 353.

94 Id. 385-386; (1955) 93 C.L.R. 55, 77.

95 Wragg v. New South Wales (1953) 88 C.L.R. 353, 386.

96 Airlines of New South Wales Pty Ltd v. New South Wales (No. 2) (1965) 113 C.L.R. 54, 78-79.

97 (1954) 92 C.L.R. 565.

98 Id. 598.

99 Id. 596.

1 Id. 596-597.

2 United States v. Darby (1941) 312 U.S. 100.

3 (1962) 108 C.L.R. 189.

4 Barwick C.J., Kitto, Menzies, Windeyer and Owen JJ.

5 (1965) 113 C.L.R. 54, 115-117.

6 Id. 78.

7 Id. 114-115.

8 Id. 115 per Kitto J., 88 per Barwick C.J.

9 (1971) 124 C.L.R. 468.

10 Trade Practices Act 1974-1975 (Cth); Prices Justification Act 1973-1974 (Cth); Financial Corporations Act 1974 (Cth).

11 (1909) 8 C.L.R. 330.

12 Sawer, Australian Constitutional Cases (3rd ed. 1964) 445.Google Scholar

13 (1909) 8 C.L.R. 330, 393.

14 Ibid.

15 (1974) 2 A.L.R. 371.

16 Id. 374, 377-378, 379 per Barwick C.J., 397, 400, 401 per Stephen J.

17 Id. 383-385, 386 per Menzies J.; 394-395 per Gibbs J.

18 Id. 380.

19 Halsbury's Laws of England (3rd ed.) Vol. 9, 5-6.

20 (1949) 79 C.L.R. 497.

21 E.g. Mccarter v. Brodie (1950) 80 C.L.R. 432.

22 Hughes & Vale Pty Ltd v. New South Wales (No. l) (1954) 93 C.L.R. 1.

23 Hughes & Vale Pty Ltd v. New South Wales (No. 2) (1955) 93 C.L.R. 127.

24 (1935) 52 C.L.R. 189.

25 Id. 204-206.

26 Grannall v. Marrickville Margarine Pty Ltd (1955) 93 C.L.R. 55, 71-72, 79.

27 Beal v. Marrickville Margarine Pty Ltd (1966) 114 C.L.R. 283.

28 R. v. Anderson; ex parte Ipee-Air Pty Ltd (1965) 113 C.L.R. 177.

29 Wragg v. New South Wales (1953) 88 C.L.R. 353.

30 Harper v. Victoria (1966) 114 C.L.R. 361.

31 >Hospital Provident Fund Pty Ltd v. Victoria (1953) 87 C.L.R. 1.

32 Mansell v. Beck (1956) 95 C.L.R. 550.

33 Id. 594.

34 Chapman v. Suttie (1963) 110 C.L.R. 321.

35 Grannall v. Marrickville Margarine Pty Ltd (1955) 93 C.L.R. 55, 78.

36 (1956) 95 C.L.R. 443.

37 Anderson, “Freedom of Inter-State Trade: Essence, Incidence and Device under Section 92 of the Constitution” (1959) 33 A.L.J. 276 and 294.Google Scholar

38 (1934) 51 C.L.R. 108.

39 Wilcox Moffiin Ltd v. New South Wales (1952) 85 C.L.R. 488.

40 (1948) 76 C.L.R. 1, 390.

41 Harper v. Victoria (1966) 114 C.L.R. 361, 372-376.

42 Ibid.

43 Samuels v. Readers' Digest Association Pty Ltd (1969) 120 C.L.R. 1.

44 S.O.S. (Mowbray) Pty Ltd v. Mead (1972) 124 C.L.R. 529.

45 (1966) 115 C.L.R. 177.

46 (1972) 124 C.L.R. 529. The Tasmanian provision in question here prohibited the sale within the State of cooking margarine to which there had been added any prohibited colouring matter or flavouring substance.

47 Id. 545 per Barwick C.J., 588-589 per Walsh J., 580 per Owen J.

48 Id. 594.

49 Id. 555 per McTiernan J. (with reference to O'Sullivan v. Miracle Foods (S.A.) Pty Ltd (1966) 115 C.L.R. 177), 565-566, 572 per Menzies J., 603 per Gibbs J.

50 Id. 562 per Menzies J., 600 per Gibbs J.

51 Id. 579.

52 Id. 550-552 per Barwick C.J., 580 per Owen J.

53 Samuels v. Readers' Digest Association Pty Ltd (1969) 120 C.L.R. 1.

54 Id. 14-15, 19-20; Mikasa (N.S.W.) Pty Ltd v. Festival Stores (1972) 127 C.L.R. 617, 629.

55 (1972) 124 C.L.R. 529, 575.

56 Id. 578.

57 Samuels v. Readers' Digest Association Pty Ltd (1969) 120 C.L.R. 1, 40.

58 Id. 31.

59 North Eastern Dairy Co. Ltd v. Dairy Industry Authority of New South Wales (1975) 7 A.L.R. 433.

60 Id. 443.

61 Id. 447, 451.

62 Id. 450-451.

63 Id. 461.

64 Id. 458-459 per Gibbs J., 485-486 per Jacobs J.

65 Id. 460 per Gibbs J., 486 per Jacobs J.

66 Id. 462-463.

67 Id. 463-464.

68 Id. 464-465.

69 Hughes & Vale Pty Ltd v. New South Wales (No. 1) (1954) 93 C.L.R. 1, 27-28.

70 (1975) 7 A.L.R. 433, 471.

71 Pound, Jurisprudence (1959) Vol. III 328.Google Scholar

72 (1975) 7 A.L.R. 433, 471.

73 Ibid.

74 Id. 476-477.

75 Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v. J.W. Alexander Ltd (1918) 25 C.L.R. 434.

76 Attorney-General (Commonwealth) v. R. (The Boilermakers' Case) (1957) 95 C.L.R. 529.

77 (1931) 46 C.L.R.

78 (1957) 95 C.L.R. 529, 540-541.

79 Sawer, “The Separation of Powers in Australian Federalism” (1961) 35 A.L.J. 177.Google Scholar

80 Sawer, op. cit. 180-183.

81 (1957) 95 C.L.R. 529, 541.

82 Else-Mitchell, (1961) 35 A.L.J. 193-194.

83 Bailey, (1961) 35 A.L.J. 195-196.

84 R. v. Joske; ex parte Australian Building Construction Employees and Builders' Labourers' Federation (1974) 130 C.L.R. 87.

85 Id. 90.

86 Id. 102. Since the above was written, in Re The Australian Industrial Court; ex parte Shop Distributive and Allied Employees Association it was argued before the High Court that the Boilermakers' Case should be overruled. No decision has yet been given.

87 R. v. Spicer; ex parte Australian Builders' Labourers' Federation (1957) 100 C.L.R. 277.

88 R. v. Commonwealth Industrial Court; ex parte The Amalgamated Engineering Union, Australian Section (1960) 103 C.L.R. 368.

89 (1954) 90 C.L.R. 353.

90 Sawer, “Judicial Power of the Commonwealth-Decisions by Registrars in Bankruptcy” (1954) 28 A.L.J. 341.Google Scholar

91 Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v. J.W. Alexander Ltd (1918) 25 C.L.R. 434; Shell Co. of Australia Ltd v. Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1930) 44 C.L.R. 530.

92 Rola Co. (Australia) Pty Ltd v. The Commonwealth (1944) 69 C.L.R. 185.

93 (1970) 123 C.L.R. 361.

94 Id. 373.

95 Victorian Chamber of Manufactures v. The Commonwealth (1943) 67 C.L.R. 413.

96 (1970) 123 C.L.R. 361, 373.

97 R. v. Hickman; ex parte Fox and Clinton (1945) 70 C.L.R. 598.

98 Id. 614.

99 Victoria v. The Commonwealth (1957) 99 C.L.R. 575.

1 State Grants Act 1959 (Cth) s. 3.

2 Jones v. The Commonwealth (No. 2) (1965) 112 C.L.R. 206.

3 Herald & Weekly Times Ltd v. The Commonwealth (1966) 115 C.L.R. 418.

4 Worthing v. Rowell & Muston Pty Ltd (1970) 123 C.L.R. 89. AttorneyGeneral (N.S.W.) v. Stocks & Holdings (Constructors) Pty Ltd (1970) 124 C.L.R. 262; R. v. Phillips (1970) 125 C.L.R. 93.

5 Lamshed v. Lake (1958) 99 C.L.R. 132.

6 Spratt v. Hermes (1965) 114 C.L.R. 226.

7 Teori Tau v. The Commonwealth (1969) 119 C.L.R. 564.

8 (1921) 29 C.L.R. 243.

9 [1924] V.L.R. 276.

10 (1971) 124 C.L.R. 367.

11 The Commonwealth v. Queensland (1975) 7 A.L.R. 351 discussed supra p. 104.

12 (1951) 83 C.L.R. 1.

13 (1975) 6 A.L.R. 1 reviewed elsewhere in this Review: infra p. 236.

14 (1926) 39 C.L.R. 95.

15 (1975) 6 A.L.R. 1, 12 per Mason J., 13 per Jacobs J., qualified at 14, 8 per Gibbs J. contra.

16 Dickenson's Arcade Pty Ltd v. Tasmania (1974) 130 C.L.R. 177. The whole question of the excise power is discussed by Coper in this Review supra p. 1.

17 E.g. Evans, “The Most Dangerous Branch? The High Court and the Constitution in a Changing Society” in Hambly and Goldring (eds.) Australian Lawyers and Social Change (1976) 13Google Scholar; McWhinney, Judicial Review (4th ed. 1969) Ch. V; Stone, “A Government of Laws and Yet of Men” (1950) 1 Annual Law Review 461.Google Scholar

18 (1952) 85 C.L.R. xi, xiii-xvi.

19 (1974) 130 C.L.R. 87.

20 Western Australia v. The Commonwealth (1975) 7 A.L.R. 159.

21 Supra pp. 122-123 nn. 70, 72.

22 Supra p. 123 n. 74.

23 (1969) 120 C.L.R. 1, 30-31.

24 (1974) 130 C.L.R. 177, 230.

25 Ibid.

26 Id. 186, 189 per Barwick C.J., 239, 240 per Mason J.

27 Dickenson's Arcade Pty Ltd v. Tasmania (1974) 130 C.L.R. 177, 189-194 per Barwick C.J., 243 per Mason J.

28 M.G. Kailis (1962) Pty Ltd v. Western Australia (1974) 130 C.L.R. 245, 265.

29 Damjanovic & Sons Pty Ltd v. The Commonwealth (1968) 117 C.L.R. 390, 396; Payroll Tax Case (1971) 122 C.L.R. 353, 378.

30 (1968) 117 C.L.R. 390, 407.

31 Id. 408.

32 Lane, The Australian Federal System (1972) 154.Google Scholar

33 See examples, real and hypothetical, of expenditure by the Commonwealth: Fajgenbaum, and Hanks, Australian Constitutional Law (1972) 671-672.Google Scholar

34 (1974) 131 C.L.R. 432.

35 Id. 456.

36 Ibid.

37 Id. 470. See also Id. 468 per Gibbs J.

38 Victoria v. The Commonwealth (1975) 7 A.L.R. 1; Coper, “The Constitutional Crisis” [1975] Australian Current Law Digest DT 281.

39 S. 57. If the House of Representatives passes any proposed law, and the Senate rejects or fails to pass it, or passes it with amendments to which the House of Representatives will not agree, and if after an interval of three months the House of Representatives, in the same or the next session, again passes the proposed law with or without any amendments which have been made, suggested, or agreed to by the Senate, and the Senate rejects or fails to pass it, or passes it with amendments to which the House of Representatives will not agree, the GovernorGeneral may dissolve the Senate and the House of Representatives simultaneously. But such dissolution shall not take place within six months before the date of the expiry of the House of Representatives by effluxion of time.

If after such dissolution the House of Representatives again passes the proposed law, with or without any amendments which have been made, suggested, or agreed to by the Senate, and the Senate rejects or fails to pass it, or passes it with amendments to which the House of Representatives will not agree, the GovernorGeneral may convene a joint sitting of the members of the Senate and of the House of Representatives.

The members present at the joint sitting may deliberate and shall vote together upon the proposed law as last proposed by the House of Representatives, and upon amendments, if any, which have been made therein by one House and not agreed to by the other, and any such amendments which are affirmed by an absolute majority of the total number of the members of the Senate and House of Representatives shall be taken to have been carried, and if the proposed law, with the amendments, if any, so carried is affirmed by an absolute majority of the total number of the members of the Senate and House of Representatives, it shall be taken to have been duly passed by both Houses of the Parliament, and shall be presented to the Governor-General for the Queen's assent.

40 (1975) 7 A.L.R. 1, 24.

41 Western Australia v. The Commonwealth (1975) 7 A.L.R. 159, 211 per Jacobs J., 225-226 per Murphy J. (Also cited as the Territory Senators' Case in this Article.)

42 Id. 211.

43 Petroleum and Minerals Authority Case (1975) 7 A.L.R. 1, 10-11 per Barwick C.J., 61-62 per Mason J.

44 Id. 23.

45 Id. 71-72.

46 Id. 51.

47 Id. 12.

48 Id. 59-60.

49 Id. 62 per Mason J., 40-46 per Gibbs J.

50 Id. 41-42.

51 Id. 40 per Gibbs J., 11 per Barwick C.J.; Goldring, “The Royal Prerogative, and Dissolution of the Commonwealth Parliament” (1975) 49 A.L.J. 521.Google Scholar

52 Petroleum and Minerals Authority Case (1975) 7 A.L.R. 1, 42.

53 (1975) 7 A.L.R. 159.

54 Id. 167.

55 Id. 203.

56 Id. 192 per Stephen J.

57 (1975) 7 A.L.R. 593, 600.

58 Ibid.

59 Western Australia v. The Commonwealth (1975) 7 A.L.R. 159, 189.