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Public Relations, Issue Management, and the Transformation of American Environmentalism, 1948–1992

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 August 2018

MELISSA ARONCZYK
MELISSA ARONCZYK*
Affiliation:
Melissa Aronczyk is an associate professor at the School of Communication & Information, Rutgers University, 4 Huntington Street, New Brunswick, NJ08901. E-mail: melissa.aronczyk@rutgers.edu.
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Abstract

This article examines the case of U.S. corporate environmentalism as a dramatic instance of issue management over four decades. Drawing on administrative and trade publications, archival sources, and personal interviews, the article tracks the gradual adoption of issue management and strategic planning techniques by the environmental public relations industry, demonstrating the increasingly powerful role of PR in influencing environmental policy making in the United States. By tracing its origins in the realm of environmental issues, the article argues that issue management became, over a forty-year period, a key strategy to define, limit, and control the concept of the environment in American society. The issue management tactics deployed by public relations actors to counter environmental activism and regulation offer a paradigmatic example from which to derive critical insights about the twin evolution of American social movements and the public relations industry.

Type
Article
Information
Enterprise & Society , Volume 19 , Issue 4 , December 2018 , pp. 836 - 863
Copyright
Copyright © The Author 2018. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Business History Conference. All rights reserved. 

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References

Bibliography of Works Cited

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Bernstein, Steven. 2001. The Compromise of Liberal Environmentalism. New York: Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bosso, Christopher. Pesticides and Politics: The Life Cycle of a Public Issue. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Buchholz, Rogene. Business Environment and Public Policy: Implications for Management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994.Google Scholar
Buchholz, Rogene, Marcus, Alfred, and Post, James, eds. Managing Environmental Issues: A Casebook. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1992.Google Scholar
Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1962.Google Scholar
Chase, W. Howard. Issue Management: Origins of the Future. Stamford, CT: Issue Action, 1984.Google Scholar
Coates, Joseph. Issues Management: How You Can Plan, Organize, and Manage for the Future. Mt. Airy, MD: Lomond Publications, 1986.Google Scholar
Cutlip, Scott. The Unseen Power: Public Relations. A History. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1994.Google Scholar
Gore, Al. The Future: Six Drivers of Global Change. New York: Random House, 2013.Google Scholar
Harrison, E. Bruce. Going Green: How to Communicate Your Company’s Environmental Commitment. Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin, 1993.Google Scholar
Hill, John W. Corporate Public Relations: Arm of Modern Management. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Andrew. From Heresy to Dogma: An Institutional History of Corporate Environmentalism. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Marchand, Roland. Creating the Corporate Soul. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Marcus, Alfred, Kaufman, Allen, and Beam, David, eds. Business Strategy and Public Policy. New York: Quorum Books, 1987.Google Scholar
Meadows, Donella H., Meadows, Dennis L., Randers, Jorgen, and Behrens, William W. III. The Limits to Growth. New York: Signet Books, 1972.Google Scholar
Muir, John. Our National Parks. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1909Google Scholar
Murphy, Patricia Coit. What a Book Can Do: The Publication and Reception of Silent Spring. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Nash, Roderick Frazier. Wilderness and the American Mind, 4th ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Oreskes, Naomi, and Conway, Erik. Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Princen, Thomas, and Finger, Matthias. Environmental NGOs in World Politics: Linking the Local and the Global. London: Routledge, 1994.Google Scholar
Rowell, Andrew. Green Backlash: Global Subversion of the Environmental Movement. London: Routledge, 1996.Google Scholar
Schudson, Michael. The Rise of the Right to Know: Politics and the Culture of Transparency, 1945–1975. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sklair, Leslie. The Transnational Capitalist Class. Oxford: Blackwell, 2001.Google Scholar
Sonnenfeld, Jeffrey. Corporate Views of the Public Interest: Perceptions of the Forest Products Industry. Boston: Auburn House, 1981.Google Scholar
Switzer, Jacqueline. Green Backlash: The History and Politics of Environmental Opposition in the U.S. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1997.Google Scholar
Thoreau, Henry David. Walden: Or, Life in the Woods. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004.Google Scholar
Vogel, David. The Market for Virtue: The Potential and Limits of Corporate Social Responsibility. New York: Brookings Institution Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Vogel, David. Fluctuating Fortunes: The Political Power of Business in America. New York: Basic Books, 1989.Google Scholar
Waterhouse, Benjamin. Lobbying America: The Politics of Business from Nixon to NAFTA. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Wessel, Milton. The Rule of Reason: A New Approach to Corporate Litigation. Aspen, CO: Aspen Law and Business, 1976.Google Scholar
Wittenberg, Ernest, and Wittenberg, Elisabeth. How to Win in Washington: Very Practical Advice about Lobbying the Grassroots and the Media, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1989.Google Scholar
Benson, Peter, and Kirsch, Stuart. “Capitalism and the Politics of Resignation.” Current Anthropology 51, no. 4 (2010): 459–486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conley, Joe Greene. Environmentalism Contained: A History of Corporate Responses to the New Environmentalism. PhD Dissertation, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University, 2006.Google Scholar
Coruth, Tina. “Grassroots and Nuclear Power.” Public Relations Journal (October 1978): 12.Google Scholar
Crane, Teresa Yancey. “Chase, W. Howard.” In Encyclopedia of Public Relations, edited by Heath, Robert, 106–107. London: Sage, 2013.Google Scholar
Ford, Harry P. “Long Range Planning of Managers.” Journal of Long Range Planning 1, no. 1 (1968): 18–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grunig, James E. “Review of Research on Environmental Public Relations.” Public Relations Review 3, no. 3 (1977): 36–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, E. Bruce. “Washington Focus.” Public Relations Journal. November 1977: 9–10.Google Scholar
Harrison, E. Bruce. “Environment Energy: Rule of Reason.” Public Relations Journal, July 1978: 1–2.Google Scholar
Heath, Robert, and Bowen, Shannon. “The Public Relations Philosophy of John W. Hill: Bricks in the Foundation of Issues Management.” Journal of Public Affairs 2, no. 4 (2002): 230–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, John W. “What We Learned from the Steel Negotiations.” Public Relations Journal, August 1960: 6–10.Google Scholar
Jaques, Tony. “Howard Chase: The Man Who Invented Issue Management.” Journal of Communication Management 12, no. 4 (2008): 336–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Barrie, and Chase, Howard W.. “Managing Public Policy Issues.” Public Relations Review (1979): 3–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Peter, Hillier, David, and Comfort, Daphne. “Fracking and Public Relations: Rehearsing the Arguments and Making the Case.” Journal of Public Affairs 13, no. 4 (2013): 384–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, David. “Environmental Management as Political Sustainability.” Organization & Environment 10, no. 2 (June 1997): 126–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lim, Joon Soo, Greenwood, Cary, and Jiang, Hua. “The Situational Public Engagement Model in a Municipal Watershed Protection Program: Information Seeking, Information Sharing, and the Use of Organizational and Social Media.” Journal of Public Affairs 16 (2016): 231–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linneman, Robert, and Klein, Harold. “The Use of Multiple Scenarios by U.S. Industrial Companies: A Comparison Study, 1977–1981.” Long Range Planning 16, no. 6 (1983): 94–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marx, Thomas. “Integrating Public Affairs and Strategic Planning.” California Management Review 29, no. 1 (1986): 141–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marx, Thomas. “Strategic Planning for Public Affairs.” Long Range Planning 23, no. 1 (1990): 9–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McHale, John, and McHale, Magda. “An Assessment of Futures Studies Worldwide.” Futures 8, no. 2 (1976): 135–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newsom, Earl. “What Is ‘The Public Interest’?” PR Journal 4, no. 1 (1948): 1–3.Google Scholar
Panwar, Rajat, and Hansen, Eric. “A Process for Identifying Social and Environmental Issues: A Case of the US Forest Products Manufacturing Industry.” Journal of Public Affairs 9 (2009): 323–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pasley, Robert S. Review of “Science and Conscience,” by Wessel, Milton. Cornell Law Review 67, no. 5 (1982): 1011–1015.Google Scholar
Pendray, Edward. “Getting Down to Fundamentals in Public Relations.” Public Relations Journal (June 1951): 3–5, 9.Google Scholar
Post, James, Murray, Edwin Jr., Dickie, Robert, and Mahon, John. “The Public Affairs Function in American Corporations: Development and Relations with Corporate Planning.” Long Range Planning 15, no. 2 (1982): 12–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sethi, S. Prakash. “Corporate Political Activism.” California Management Review 24 (1982): 32–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shantz, Frank B. “Countering the Anti-Nuclear Activists.” Public Relations Journal (October 1978): 10.Google Scholar
Sicilia, David. “The Corporation under Siege: Social Movements, Regulation, Public Relations, and Tort Law since the Second World War.” In Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture, edited by Lipartito, Kenneth and Sicilia, David, 188–222. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silver, Howard. “Issues Management Group Holds Conference.” PS: Political Science & Politics (Summer 1983): 562–563.Google Scholar
Tiffany, Paul. “Corporate Management of the ‘External Environment’: Bethlehem Steel, Ivy Lee, and the Origins of Public Relations in the American Steel Industry.” Essays in Economic and Business History V (1987): 1–18.Google Scholar
Trowbridge, Janey Gray. “A Pluralistic Perspective on the Intractability of the International Joint Commission’s Lake Ontario-St. Lawrence River Study.” Journal of Public Affairs 15 (2015): 153–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wack, Pierre. “Scenarios: Uncharted Waters Ahead.” Harvard Business Review, September-October 1985: 73–89.Google Scholar
White, Jenny, and Bero, Lisa A.. “Corporate Manipulation of Research: Strategies are Similar across Five Industries.” Stanford Law & Policy Review 21 (2010): 105–134.Google Scholar
Chief Executive MagazineGoogle Scholar
Public Relations JournalGoogle Scholar
PublicistGoogle Scholar
Wall Street JournalGoogle Scholar
Washington PostGoogle Scholar
Academy Forum. Coal as an Energy Resource: Conflict and Consensus. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1977.Google Scholar
Center for International Environmental Law. Smoke and Fumes: A Hidden History of Oil and Tobacco. www.smokeandfumes.org.Google Scholar
Congressional Quarterly. Public Interest Profiles. Washington, DC: Foundation for Public Affairs.Google Scholar
Harrison, E. Bruce. “Grassroots Public Relations: The Art of Advocacy Stimulation to Affect Public Policy.” [New York, NY?]: Counselors Academy, Public Relations Society of America, 1987.Google Scholar
Harrison, E. Bruce. Environmental Communication and Public Relations Handbook, 2nd ed. Rockville, MD: Government Institutes, 1992.Google Scholar
Harrison, E. Bruce. “Green Communication in the Age of Sustainable Development.” International Public Relations Association (Gold Paper No. 9), 1993.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, Inc. A Report to the Board of Directors by the Public Relations Advisory Committee, February 14, 1961.Google Scholar
Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, Inc. [MCA] Minutes of Meeting, Environmental Health Advisory Committee, 1966.Google Scholar
Pooley, Eric. “How Much Would You Pay to Save the Planet? The American Press and the Economics of Climate Change.” Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy (Discussion Paper Series #D-49), January 2009.Google Scholar
Union of Concerned Scientists. Smoke, Mirrors and Hot Air: How ExxonMobil Uses Big Tobacco’s Tactics to Manufacture Uncertainty on Climate Science. Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists, 2007.Google Scholar
Chemical Industry Archives: A Project of the Environmental Working Group. www.chemicalindustryarchives.org/Google Scholar
Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) Records, 1938–2013, Mass Communications History Collections, Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison.Google Scholar
Tobacco Industry Archives, Truth Tobacco Industry Documents Library, UCSF Library and Center for Knowledge Management. www.industrydocumentslibrary.ucsf.edu/tobacco/Google Scholar
Beder, Sharon. Global Spin: The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism. Rev. ed. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 2002.Google Scholar
Bernstein, Steven. 2001. The Compromise of Liberal Environmentalism. New York: Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bosso, Christopher. Pesticides and Politics: The Life Cycle of a Public Issue. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Buchholz, Rogene. Business Environment and Public Policy: Implications for Management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994.Google Scholar
Buchholz, Rogene, Marcus, Alfred, and Post, James, eds. Managing Environmental Issues: A Casebook. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1992.Google Scholar
Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1962.Google Scholar
Chase, W. Howard. Issue Management: Origins of the Future. Stamford, CT: Issue Action, 1984.Google Scholar
Coates, Joseph. Issues Management: How You Can Plan, Organize, and Manage for the Future. Mt. Airy, MD: Lomond Publications, 1986.Google Scholar
Cutlip, Scott. The Unseen Power: Public Relations. A History. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1994.Google Scholar
Gore, Al. The Future: Six Drivers of Global Change. New York: Random House, 2013.Google Scholar
Harrison, E. Bruce. Going Green: How to Communicate Your Company’s Environmental Commitment. Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin, 1993.Google Scholar
Hill, John W. Corporate Public Relations: Arm of Modern Management. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Andrew. From Heresy to Dogma: An Institutional History of Corporate Environmentalism. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Marchand, Roland. Creating the Corporate Soul. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Marcus, Alfred, Kaufman, Allen, and Beam, David, eds. Business Strategy and Public Policy. New York: Quorum Books, 1987.Google Scholar
Meadows, Donella H., Meadows, Dennis L., Randers, Jorgen, and Behrens, William W. III. The Limits to Growth. New York: Signet Books, 1972.Google Scholar
Muir, John. Our National Parks. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1909Google Scholar
Murphy, Patricia Coit. What a Book Can Do: The Publication and Reception of Silent Spring. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Nash, Roderick Frazier. Wilderness and the American Mind, 4th ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Oreskes, Naomi, and Conway, Erik. Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Princen, Thomas, and Finger, Matthias. Environmental NGOs in World Politics: Linking the Local and the Global. London: Routledge, 1994.Google Scholar
Rowell, Andrew. Green Backlash: Global Subversion of the Environmental Movement. London: Routledge, 1996.Google Scholar
Schudson, Michael. The Rise of the Right to Know: Politics and the Culture of Transparency, 1945–1975. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sklair, Leslie. The Transnational Capitalist Class. Oxford: Blackwell, 2001.Google Scholar
Sonnenfeld, Jeffrey. Corporate Views of the Public Interest: Perceptions of the Forest Products Industry. Boston: Auburn House, 1981.Google Scholar
Switzer, Jacqueline. Green Backlash: The History and Politics of Environmental Opposition in the U.S. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1997.Google Scholar
Thoreau, Henry David. Walden: Or, Life in the Woods. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004.Google Scholar
Vogel, David. The Market for Virtue: The Potential and Limits of Corporate Social Responsibility. New York: Brookings Institution Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Vogel, David. Fluctuating Fortunes: The Political Power of Business in America. New York: Basic Books, 1989.Google Scholar
Waterhouse, Benjamin. Lobbying America: The Politics of Business from Nixon to NAFTA. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Wessel, Milton. The Rule of Reason: A New Approach to Corporate Litigation. Aspen, CO: Aspen Law and Business, 1976.Google Scholar
Wittenberg, Ernest, and Wittenberg, Elisabeth. How to Win in Washington: Very Practical Advice about Lobbying the Grassroots and the Media, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1989.Google Scholar
Benson, Peter, and Kirsch, Stuart. “Capitalism and the Politics of Resignation.” Current Anthropology 51, no. 4 (2010): 459–486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conley, Joe Greene. Environmentalism Contained: A History of Corporate Responses to the New Environmentalism. PhD Dissertation, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University, 2006.Google Scholar
Coruth, Tina. “Grassroots and Nuclear Power.” Public Relations Journal (October 1978): 12.Google Scholar
Crane, Teresa Yancey. “Chase, W. Howard.” In Encyclopedia of Public Relations, edited by Heath, Robert, 106–107. London: Sage, 2013.Google Scholar
Ford, Harry P. “Long Range Planning of Managers.” Journal of Long Range Planning 1, no. 1 (1968): 18–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grunig, James E. “Review of Research on Environmental Public Relations.” Public Relations Review 3, no. 3 (1977): 36–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, E. Bruce. “Washington Focus.” Public Relations Journal. November 1977: 9–10.Google Scholar
Harrison, E. Bruce. “Environment Energy: Rule of Reason.” Public Relations Journal, July 1978: 1–2.Google Scholar
Heath, Robert, and Bowen, Shannon. “The Public Relations Philosophy of John W. Hill: Bricks in the Foundation of Issues Management.” Journal of Public Affairs 2, no. 4 (2002): 230–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, John W. “What We Learned from the Steel Negotiations.” Public Relations Journal, August 1960: 6–10.Google Scholar
Jaques, Tony. “Howard Chase: The Man Who Invented Issue Management.” Journal of Communication Management 12, no. 4 (2008): 336–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Barrie, and Chase, Howard W.. “Managing Public Policy Issues.” Public Relations Review (1979): 3–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Peter, Hillier, David, and Comfort, Daphne. “Fracking and Public Relations: Rehearsing the Arguments and Making the Case.” Journal of Public Affairs 13, no. 4 (2013): 384–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, David. “Environmental Management as Political Sustainability.” Organization & Environment 10, no. 2 (June 1997): 126–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lim, Joon Soo, Greenwood, Cary, and Jiang, Hua. “The Situational Public Engagement Model in a Municipal Watershed Protection Program: Information Seeking, Information Sharing, and the Use of Organizational and Social Media.” Journal of Public Affairs 16 (2016): 231–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linneman, Robert, and Klein, Harold. “The Use of Multiple Scenarios by U.S. Industrial Companies: A Comparison Study, 1977–1981.” Long Range Planning 16, no. 6 (1983): 94–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marx, Thomas. “Integrating Public Affairs and Strategic Planning.” California Management Review 29, no. 1 (1986): 141–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marx, Thomas. “Strategic Planning for Public Affairs.” Long Range Planning 23, no. 1 (1990): 9–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McHale, John, and McHale, Magda. “An Assessment of Futures Studies Worldwide.” Futures 8, no. 2 (1976): 135–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newsom, Earl. “What Is ‘The Public Interest’?” PR Journal 4, no. 1 (1948): 1–3.Google Scholar
Panwar, Rajat, and Hansen, Eric. “A Process for Identifying Social and Environmental Issues: A Case of the US Forest Products Manufacturing Industry.” Journal of Public Affairs 9 (2009): 323–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pasley, Robert S. Review of “Science and Conscience,” by Wessel, Milton. Cornell Law Review 67, no. 5 (1982): 1011–1015.Google Scholar
Pendray, Edward. “Getting Down to Fundamentals in Public Relations.” Public Relations Journal (June 1951): 3–5, 9.Google Scholar
Post, James, Murray, Edwin Jr., Dickie, Robert, and Mahon, John. “The Public Affairs Function in American Corporations: Development and Relations with Corporate Planning.” Long Range Planning 15, no. 2 (1982): 12–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sethi, S. Prakash. “Corporate Political Activism.” California Management Review 24 (1982): 32–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shantz, Frank B. “Countering the Anti-Nuclear Activists.” Public Relations Journal (October 1978): 10.Google Scholar
Sicilia, David. “The Corporation under Siege: Social Movements, Regulation, Public Relations, and Tort Law since the Second World War.” In Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture, edited by Lipartito, Kenneth and Sicilia, David, 188–222. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silver, Howard. “Issues Management Group Holds Conference.” PS: Political Science & Politics (Summer 1983): 562–563.Google Scholar
Tiffany, Paul. “Corporate Management of the ‘External Environment’: Bethlehem Steel, Ivy Lee, and the Origins of Public Relations in the American Steel Industry.” Essays in Economic and Business History V (1987): 1–18.Google Scholar
Trowbridge, Janey Gray. “A Pluralistic Perspective on the Intractability of the International Joint Commission’s Lake Ontario-St. Lawrence River Study.” Journal of Public Affairs 15 (2015): 153–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wack, Pierre. “Scenarios: Uncharted Waters Ahead.” Harvard Business Review, September-October 1985: 73–89.Google Scholar
White, Jenny, and Bero, Lisa A.. “Corporate Manipulation of Research: Strategies are Similar across Five Industries.” Stanford Law & Policy Review 21 (2010): 105–134.Google Scholar
Chief Executive MagazineGoogle Scholar
Public Relations JournalGoogle Scholar
PublicistGoogle Scholar
Wall Street JournalGoogle Scholar
Washington PostGoogle Scholar
Academy Forum. Coal as an Energy Resource: Conflict and Consensus. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1977.Google Scholar
Center for International Environmental Law. Smoke and Fumes: A Hidden History of Oil and Tobacco. www.smokeandfumes.org.Google Scholar
Congressional Quarterly. Public Interest Profiles. Washington, DC: Foundation for Public Affairs.Google Scholar
Harrison, E. Bruce. “Grassroots Public Relations: The Art of Advocacy Stimulation to Affect Public Policy.” [New York, NY?]: Counselors Academy, Public Relations Society of America, 1987.Google Scholar
Harrison, E. Bruce. Environmental Communication and Public Relations Handbook, 2nd ed. Rockville, MD: Government Institutes, 1992.Google Scholar
Harrison, E. Bruce. “Green Communication in the Age of Sustainable Development.” International Public Relations Association (Gold Paper No. 9), 1993.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, Inc. A Report to the Board of Directors by the Public Relations Advisory Committee, February 14, 1961.Google Scholar
Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, Inc. [MCA] Minutes of Meeting, Environmental Health Advisory Committee, 1966.Google Scholar
Pooley, Eric. “How Much Would You Pay to Save the Planet? The American Press and the Economics of Climate Change.” Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy (Discussion Paper Series #D-49), January 2009.Google Scholar
Union of Concerned Scientists. Smoke, Mirrors and Hot Air: How ExxonMobil Uses Big Tobacco’s Tactics to Manufacture Uncertainty on Climate Science. Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists, 2007.Google Scholar
Chemical Industry Archives: A Project of the Environmental Working Group. www.chemicalindustryarchives.org/Google Scholar
Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) Records, 1938–2013, Mass Communications History Collections, Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison.Google Scholar
Tobacco Industry Archives, Truth Tobacco Industry Documents Library, UCSF Library and Center for Knowledge Management. www.industrydocumentslibrary.ucsf.edu/tobacco/Google Scholar