The bearing which the subject of the following communication has upon the much-vexed question of the unity of the human species, and the inferences which may be drawn from it in relation thereto, invest it with an importance which would not otherwise belong to it.

The position which the question I allude to at present occupies is this. On the one hand, the advocates of the view that all men are not of the same species, but that they compose a genus consisting of many species, maintain that the parasites which infest the different races of man are distinct; and because we usually find that distinct species of parasites are allotted respectively to the different species of the lower animals, they infer that the same rule must hold with man, and that therefore each different race possessing a distinct parasite must be a distinct species.

In the Geology of Scotland, no feature comes at once more prominently before the observer than the number and variety of the trap-rocks. From the Sheant Isles to the Cheviot Hills the map is dotted over with trappean patches, which occur sometimes as long, narrow dykes, and often as irregular sheets, that extend almost over entire counties. The appearance of the rocks on the face of the country is scarcely less marked than on the map, and to their ever-changing varieties, we owe not a little of the characteristic scenery of Scotland. Throughout the wilds of the Inner Hebrides it is the trap-rocks which form many of the precipitous cliff-lines, and the craggy irregular hills. The soft pastoral valleys of the Ochils and the Pentlands lie among trappean rocks, while the hill-ranges, which break up the great central valley of Scotland, more especially the abrupt solitary crags that form such prominent landmarks, owe their existence to the permanence of the trap-rocks of which they consist. In short, there is no group of rocks more constantly found throughout the length and breadth of the island, and none, therefore, which so frequently obtrudes on the geologist or more imperatively demands his attention.

(1.) In February 1850, I laid before the Royal Society of Edinburgh a paper, in which the laws of the pressure and expansion of gases and vapours were deduced from the supposition, that that part of the elasticity of bodies which depends upon heat, arises from the centrifugal force of the revolutions of the particles of elastic atmospheres surrounding nuclei, or atomic centres. A summary of the results of this supposition, which I called the Hypothesis of Molecular Vortices, was printed in the Transactions of this Society, volume xx., as an introduction to a series of papers on the Mechanical Action of Heat; and the original paper has since appeared in detail in the Philosophical Magazine.

Sir Charles Blagden concludes a memoir in the Philosophical Transactions of London, vol. lxxviii., for the year 1788, “On the Effect of various substances in lowering the Point of Congelation in Water,” with the account of an experiment to determine the effect of salt upon the expansion of water by cold.

From that experiment, he imagined that he had reason to conclude, as far as one experiment goes, that the combination of a salt with water has no other effect upon its quality of expanding by cold, than to depress the point at which that quality begins to be sensible, just as much as it depresses the point of congelation.

The scientific world appear to have admitted this general deduction of Blagden, and, trusting to the result of a single experiment, extended it so far as to lay it down as a general law, that, as pure water has its maximum of density at 7½° above its freezing point, so every saline solution has a maximum of density at a temperature above its point of congelation, and that this temperature will be exactly 7½° distant from the freezing point of the solution.

Ditch cuttings (69 samples) from a section of Awaizombe-1well located in the Northern Depobelt of the eastern Niger Delta Basin were used for this study. The lithology of the studied interval 1373–1812 m (439 m thick) consists of fissile grey shale and mudstone units. The scid method of sample preparation for palynormorphs’ recovery was adopted. Analysis recorded a well-preserved and diverse assemblage of palynomorphs, rich in pollen, spores and dinoflagellate cysts (dinocysts). First and last occurrences of marker and age diagnostic species were used for palynostratigraphic interpretation. Four palynostratigraphic interval range zones were established: Psilatriporites sp.–Racemonocolpites hians Zone; early Oligocene (Rupelian age), Praedapollis africanus–Doualaidites laevigatus Zone; late Eocene (Priabonian age), middle Eocene (Lutetian and Bartonian ages), Doualaidites laevigatus–Praedapollis flexibilies Zone; and early Eocene (Ypresian age), Verrucatosporites usmensis–Retitricolpites ituensis Zone. The first downhole occurrence of D. laevigatus at the 1482 m marks the late Eocene/early Oligocene boundary. Established zones are useful for inter and intra basins correlation. Lithology and age of the studied section are suggestive of the lower Agbada Formation. Palaeoenvironmental interpretations using diagnostic species revealed two environments: brackish and inner neritic to upper bathyal (0–600 m) under relatively warm-water marine condition indicated by thermophilic dinocyst taxa, such as Lingulodinium machaerophorum, Polysphaeridium zoharyi and Homotryblium spp. The lithology and these types of environments are good sites for hydrocarbon generation.

Byronids are problematic fossils of possible cnidarian affinity, only rarely reported from the Devonian, but never previously studied in the Barrandian area, Czech Republic. Two new species Prestephanoscyphus branzovensis sp. nov. and Prestephanoscyphus robustus sp. nov. are erected from the Lochkovian and the Eifelian, respectively. Four poorly known species referred to Byronia are described in open nomenclature from the Emsian and Eifelian. The new genus Parabyronia gen. nov. with the type species Parabyronia elegans sp. nov. is closely related to other sphenothallids but is distinguished by transverse ridges on its theca and short spines at the apertural end of the theca. Definite identification of phosphatic rings as the attachment structure of byronids was proved by new material of the Lochkovian age. A dwarf conularia Pidiconularia gen. nov. with the type species Pidiconularia tubulata sp. nov. is remarkable by its minute size and very fine ornament; its conulariid affinity is proved by subrectangular cross-section and four internal carinae. Microstructure of theca of Prestephanoscyphus is characterised by alternation of compact laminae of aligned columnar microcrystallites and chambered laminae with isometric microcrystallites of apatite. Accretionary growth of byronid theca and structure of the holdfast with basal opening for the adhesive pedal disc support their cnidarian affinity although they likely display the bilateral instead of tetramerous symmetry. The protective function of bilaterally symmetrical whorls of internal apophyses in Prestephanoscyphus is suggested and their role in strengthening of thecal wall or supporting function of gastric septa are disputed. The byronids are regarded as epibionts rather than attached to the rocks. They are representatives of benthic groups with phosphatic shells that declined with decreasing availability of phosphorus in seas and oceans.

I have explained at some length, in my “Reply to Prof. Boltzmann,” the circumstances under which the present inquiry originated and has been pursued. Of these I need now only mention two:—first, the very limited time which I can spare for such work; second, the very meagre acquaintance I possessed of what had been already done with regard to the subject. My object has been to give an easily intelligible investigation of the Foundations of the Kinetic Theory; and I have, in consequence, abstained from reading the details of any investigation (be its author who he may) which seemed to me to be unnecessarily complex. Such a course has, inevitably, certain disadvantages, but its manifest advantages far outweigh them.

A small fauna of vertebrates is recorded from the Insect Limestone, Bembridge Marls Member, Bouldnor Formation, late Priabonian, latest Eocene, of the Isle of Wight, UK. The taxa represented are unidentified teleost fishes, lizards including a scincoid, unidentified birds and the theridomyid rodent Isoptychus. The scincoid represents the youngest record of the group in the UK. Of particular note is the taphonomic interpretation based on the preservation of anatomical parts of land-based tetrapods that would have been most likely transported to the site of deposition by wind, namely bird feathers and pieces of shed lizard skin. These comprise the majority of the specimens and suggest that the dominant transport mechanism was wind.

The observations which have been made to determine the magnitude and figure of the earth, have not hitherto led to results completely satisfactory. They have indeed demonsrated the compression or oblateness of the terrestrial spheroid, but they have left an uncertainty as to the quantity of that compression, extending from about the one hundred and seventieth, to the three hundred and thirtieth part of the radius of the equator. Between these two quantities, the former of which is nearly double of the latter, most of the results are placed, but in such a manner that those best entitled to credit are much nearer to the least extreme than to the greatest.

The essential character of all tabular aids to computation is, that the results of many operations are recorded in some systematic way for easy reference, and that thereby the computer is spared the toil of obtaining these results for himself.

In many cases this constitutes almost the whole advantage of the table. Thus when, instead of extracting the cube root of some number, we take it from a printed book, we are merely using another's labour. The gain to the calculating community is, that the oft-repeated extraction of the same root is avoided. We also gain by the facility of systematic calculation; the labour of computing a series of successive results being in general only a small fraction of that which would have attended the same work performed in a desultory manner.

Alderia modesta (class Gastropoda, order Sacoglossa) has a central nervous system of a type common in the Stiligeridae and Limapontiidae. The visceral loop is short and bears two ganglia, the abdominal and supra-intestinal.

Medio-dorsal bodies, probably neurosecretory in function, are present on the cerebral ganglia. They were also found in eight other species of Sacoglossa and latero-dorsal bodies were noted in Oxynoe viridis (Pease) and Lobiger viridis (Pease).

Dissections of sixteen species of Sacoglossa showed that the order may be arranged on the length of the visceral loop and the number of ganglia on it. The evolution of medio-dorsal bodies is discussed.

The following report deals with the systematics and distribution of molluscs collected in and around certain lakes in Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada. For the sake of completeness some records published by Baker (2) are also included. The investigations of which this forms a part were made under the direction of Professor Charles H. O'Donoghue at the request of the Biological Board of Canada, and I desire to thank him for his encouragement and help throughout.

The monograptids from the Wenlock and Ludlow (mid- to late Silurian) of the palaeotropical Baltic Basin exhibit thickened ring structures (sicular annuli) over their initial phase of growth. Appearing before the lundgreni extinction event, they persisted throughout the remainder of the Silurian, fluctuating in number over that period. To better understand the mechanisms controlling their development and variation, counts of sicular annuli were taken from three well cores in Lithuania, compared between species in each sample and compared with contemporaneous gamma ray data, accompanied by the stable isotope (δ13C), and acritarch diversity data. Mean counts of annuli fluctuated greatly over the studied interval, but showed negligible variation between species, indicating that the trait is ecophenotypic. The fluctuation in annulus presence aligned with variations in fourth- and fifth-order cycles derived from the gamma ray trends, which represent significant sea level fluctuations, δ13C ratios, and primary productivity, suggesting that annuli were more plentiful in high-stand states which are associated with the wetter climate and more productive conditions, whereas dryer, less productive conditions were not conducive to annulus development. In light of this evidence, we hypothesise that the action of upwelling as a result of intensified storm events during wetter periods would have encouraged phytoplankton blooms, increasing construction of annuli. These results show the potential utility of sicular annuli in the study of Silurian climate change and give new insights into graptolite palaeoecology.

In 1855, when the systematic registration of births in Scotland was established, the schedule used exacted from the public a variety of interesting details in connection with each return,—a circumstance which gives to the registers for that year an extraordinary value. For, in consequence, I believe, of numerous complaints regarding the irksome labour of filling up the document, it was discontinued, and a much less comprehensive schedule has been in use ever since. It is from the registers of births for 1855 that I have extracted almost all the data which have yielded the results I am now about to communicate. Similar data cannot be found in the subsequent registers. The great value of these registers has been distinctly pointed out by Dr Stark, the able assistant to the Registrar-General. I must here acknowledge, with grateful thanks, the assistance and encouragement I have received from Mr Seton and other officials of the Register-House.

The structures known as pedicellariæ were first described by O. F. Müller. He regarded them as parasitic organisms, and described under the generic name of Pedicellaria three species—Pedicellaria tridens, P. triphylla, and P. globifera. Lamarck, in the first edition of his “Animaux sans Vertèbres,” published in 1801, and also in the second edition, following Müller, classified the genus Pedicellaria with the Corynidæ and Hydridæ among the naked polyps. Cuvier also, in the first edition of the “Regne Animal,” took the same view of the nature of pedicellariæ. It was not until 1825 that the real nature of these organs was recognised. Delle Chiaje, in his work on invertebrate animals, asserted that pedicellariæ formed an integral portion of the Echinus, and were simply appendages of the test. The following quotation from his work shows that he thoroughly understood the true nature of these structures. He says (vol. ii. p. 324):—“Fanno elleno parte integrale degli echini e servon loro per attacarsi a corpi adiacenti ed anche a ritenere gli animaletti da cibarsi.”

The following communication is intended to be the first of a series, in which I propose to consider the results of observations made at Makerstoun, near Kelso, Roxburghshire, in the Observatory of the President of this Society. These observations, and the tabular results, will be found ultimately in the volumes of Makerstoun Observations, constituting volumes of the Society's Transactions.

Before entering on the main subject of this paper, the composition of rainwater, I shall give a brief account of the rain that has fallen in the Lake-District during the year just past; and this I shall do chiefly by means of tables. The quantity of rain registered has been so greatly in excess of any former year, that of itself it is deserving of record, and the more so, comparing the weather which has prevailed here with the weather in the south, for the most part, happily for the harvest, as remarkable for an opposite state, an excess of dryness.

In pursuance of an idea which occurred independently to Professor Tait and myself, a careful examination has been made of the solar autographs, taken at Kew and Cranford, under the superintendence of Mr Warren De la Rue. This was done with the view of detecting, if possible, some reference to planetary configurations in the behaviour of sun-spots, and in this undertaking, much aid was derived from a remark once made by Mr Beckley of Kew, when taking pictures of the sun, to the effect that, for a considerable period of time, he did not observe any spots in the act of breaking out on the visible disc of our luminary. A few words may not be amiss regarding the nature of the scrutiny to which the solar pictures were subjected, and also the value of this as a test of planetary action. In the first place, let us bear in mind, that by the rotation of our luminary, the different portions of his surface are successively presented to each planet in turn. Now, if the bodies of our system have any appreciable influence of this kind upon the sun, it is natural to expect that this should differ for any given portion of his surface, according as this portion is presented to the influencing body, or withdrawn by rotation, so that the sun's diameter is interposed between it and the planet. We should therefore expect to find that, for a given date, the spots should all begin to break out into visibility at or about the same ecliptical longitude. Similarly with regard to their healing up; and, generally, all spots on the sun's disc at a given date should behave in the same manner as they pass a given ecliptical longitude.

The causes of the peculiarities of the solar rotation exhibited by the superficial layers of the sun's body must still be considered unknown, notwithstanding recent interesting attempts at explanation. This is no doubt partly due to the difficulties of the hydrodynamical problem placed before the mathematician in an investigation of such complexity as the movements of particles in a rotating fluid subject to energetic convection. But it must also be conceded that the observational data available for a basis of mathematical, or even speculative, research are still so scanty, that for this reason alone we may perhaps not feel surprised at the failure so far of theoretical attempts.