Hostname: page-component-669899f699-vbsjw Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-27T07:12:40.623Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The reproduction of child maltreatment: An examination of adolescent problem behavior, substance use, and precocious transitions in the link between victimization and perpetration

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 February 2019

Megan Bears Augustyn ,
Terence P. Thornberry  and
Kimberly L. Henry
Megan Bears Augustyn*
Affiliation:
Department of Criminal Justice, University of Texas at San Antonio
Terence P. Thornberry
Affiliation:
Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, University of Maryland Distinguished Professor Emeritus, the University at Albany
Kimberly L. Henry
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Colorado State University Colorado School of Public Health
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Megan Bears Augustyn, Department of Criminal Justice, University of Texas at San Antonio, 501 W. Cesar Chavez Blvd., San Antonio, TX 78209; Email: megan.augustyn@utsa.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Growing evidence suggests that maltreatment is reproduced across generations as victims of maltreatment are at an increased risk for maltreatment perpetration. Unfortunately, little information about mediating pathways exists to provide an explanation for why maltreatment begets maltreatment. We use the number of types of maltreatment experienced to predict later maltreatment perpetration and then examine two developmental pathways that may serve as bridges between maltreatment victimization and perpetration: adolescent problem behaviors and precocious transitions to adulthood. With prospective, longitudinal data from the Rochester Youth Development Study, we assess the relevance of these pathways for the number of maltreatment experiences as well as the number of maltreatment victimization experiences by developmental period (i.e., childhood and adolescence). Our results demonstrate a significant relationship between maltreatment victimization and maltreatment perpetration. Adolescent delinquency and two precocious transitions, dropping out of school and independent living, as well as the accumulation of precocious transitions and problem behaviors, serve as mediators of this intergenerational relationship. Furthermore, the relationship between the number of types of maltreatment and subsequent perpetration is primarily driven by experiences of maltreatment during adolescence. We discuss the implications of these results and set an agenda for the development of programs and policies to interrupt the cycle of maltreatment.

Type
Special Section Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 31 , Special Issue 1: The effect of maltreatment experiences on maltreating and dysfunctional parenting: A search for mechanisms , February 2019 , pp. 53 - 71
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

Support for the Rochester Youth Development Study has been provided by National Institute on Drug Abuse Grant R01DA020195 and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Grant R01CE001572. Work on this project was also aided by grants to the Center for Social and Demographic Analysis at the University at Albany (NICHD Grant P30HD32041 and NSF Grant SBR-9512290). Points of view or opinions in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the funding agencies.

We would like to thank the New York State Office of Children and Family Services for their assistance in collecting the Child Protective Services data.

References

Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychology.Google Scholar
Alexander, J. F., & Robbins, M. S. (2011). Functional family therapy. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Allwood, M. A., & Widom, C. S. (2013). Child abuse and neglect, developmental role attainment, and adult arrests. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 50, 551–578.Google Scholar
Augustyn, M. B., Thornberry, T. P., & Krohn, M. D. (2014). Gang membership and pathways to maladaptive parenting. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 24, 252–267.Google Scholar
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Jaffee, S. R. (2006). The multiple determinants of parenting. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Risk, disorder and adaptation (pp. 38–75). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Ruttle, P. L., Boyce, W. T., Armstrong, J. M., & Essex, M. J. (2015). Early adversity, elevated stress physiology, accelerated sexual maturation, and poor health in females. Developmental Psychology, 51, 816.Google Scholar
Berlin, L. J., Appleyard, K., & Dodge, K. A. (2011). Intergenerational continuity in child maltreatment: Mediating mechanisms and implications for prevention. Child Development, 82, 162–176.Google Scholar
Bloom, D. (2010). Transitional jobs: Background, program models, and evaluation evidence. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED509317.pdfGoogle Scholar
Blumstein, A., Cohen, J., Roth, J. A., &, Visher, C. A. (1986). Criminal careers and “career criminals” (Vol. 2). Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Brooks-Gunn, J., & Chase-Lansdale, L. (1995). Adolescent parenthood. In Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 3. Status and social conditions of parenting. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Brown, J., Cohen, P., Johnson, J. G., & Salzinger, S. (1998). A longitudinal analysis of risk factors for child maltreatment: Findings of a 17-year prospective study of officially recorded and self-reported child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22, 1065–1078.Google Scholar
Bushway, S. D., Krohn, M. D., Lizotte, A. J., Phillips, M. D., & Schmidt, N. M. (2013). Are risky youth less protectable as they age? The dynamics of protection during adolescence and young adulthood. Justice Quarterly, 30, 84–116.Google Scholar
Capaldi, D. M., Kim, H. K., & Pears, K. C. (2009). The association between partner violence and child maltreatment: A common conceptual framework. In Whitaker, D. J. & Lutzker, J. R. (Eds.), Preventing partner violence (pp. 93–111). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Cash, S. J., & Wilke, D. J. (2003). An ecological model of maternal substance abuse and child neglect: Issues, analyses, and recommendations. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73, 392–404.Google Scholar
Chaffin, M., Kelleher, K., & Hollenberg, J. (1996). Onset of physical abuse and neglect: Psychiatric, substance abuse, and social risk factors from prospective community data. Child Abuse & Neglect, 20, 191–203.Google Scholar
Chaffin, M., Silovsky, J. F., Funderburk, B., Valle, L. A., Brestan, E. V., Balachova, T., … Bonner, B. L. (2004). Parent-child interaction therapy with physically abusive parents: Efficacy for reducing future abuse reports. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 500.Google Scholar
Chamberlain, P. (2003). Treating chronic juvenile offenders: Advances made through the Oregon multidimensional treatment foster care model. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2004). An odyssey of discovery: lessons learned through three decades of research on child maltreatment. American Psychologist, 59(8), 731.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2005). Child maltreatment. Annual Review Clinical Psychology, 1, 409–438.Google Scholar
Claussen, A. H., & Crittenden, P. M. (1991). Physical and psychological maltreatment: Relations among types of maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 15, 5–18.Google Scholar
Clemmons, J. C., Walsh, K., DiLillo, D., & Messman-Moore, T. L. (2007). Unique and combined contributions of multiple child abuse types and abuse severity to adult trauma symptomatology. Child Maltreatment, 12, 172–181.Google Scholar
Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., & Martin, M. J. (2010). Socioeconomic status, family processes, and individual development. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 685–704.Google Scholar
Conger, R. D., Schofield, T. J., Neppl, T. K., & Merrick, M. T. (2013). Disrupting intergenerational continuity in harsh and abusive parenting: The importance of a nurturing relationship with a romantic partner. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53, S11–S17.Google Scholar
Cox, C. E., Kotch, J. B., & Everson, M. D. (2003). A longitudinal study of modifying influences in the relationship between domestic violence and child maltreatment. Journal of Family Violence, 18, 5–17.Google Scholar
Dishion, T. J., Capaldi, D. M., & Yoerger, K. (1999). Middle childhood antecedents to progressions in male aadolescent substance use: An ecological analysis of risk and protection. Journal of Adolescent Research, 14, 175–205.Google Scholar
Dixon, L., Browne, K., & Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. (2005). Risk factors of parents abused as children: A mediational analysis of the intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment (Part I). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 47–57.Google Scholar
Eckenrode, J., Powers, J., Doris, J., Munsch, J., & Bolger, N. (1988). Substantiation of child abuse and neglect reports. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 9–16.Google Scholar
Eckenrode, J., Sielinski, D., Smith, E., Marcynyszyn, L. A., Henderson, C. R. Jr., Kitzman, H., … Olds, D. L. (2001). Child maltreatment and the early onset of problem behaviors: Can a program of nurse home visitation break the link? Development and Psychopathology, 13, 873–890.Google Scholar
Elder, G. H. Jr. (1985). Perspectives on the life course. In Elder, G. H. Jr. (Ed.), Life course dynamics. New York: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Elder, G. H. Jr. (1998). The life course as developmental theory. Child Development, 69, 1–12.Google Scholar
Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Menard, S. (1989). Research in criminology. Multiple problem youth: Delinquency, substance use, and mental health problems. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
English, D. J., Upadhyaya, M. P., Litrownik, A. J., Marshall, J. M., Runyan, D. K., Graham, J. C., & Dubowitz, H. (2005). Maltreatment's wake: The relationship of maltreatment dimensions to child outcomes. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 597–619.Google Scholar
Fagan, A. A. (2005). The relationship between adolescent physical abuse and criminal offending: Support for an enduring and generalized cycle of violence. Journal of Family Violence, 20, 279–290.Google Scholar
Fals-Stewart, W., Kelley, M. L., Fincham, F. D., Golden, J., & Logsdon, T. (2004). Emotional and behavioral problems of children living with drug-abusing fathers: Comparisons with children living with alcohol-abusing and non-substance-abusing fathers. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 319–330.Google Scholar
Fang, X., Brown, D. S., Florence, C. S., & Mercy, J. A. (2012). The economic burden of child maltreatment in the United States and implications for prevention. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36, 156–165.Google Scholar
Farnworth, M., Thornberry, T. P., Krohn, M. D., & Lizotte, A. J. (1994). Measurement in the study of class and delinquency: Integrating theory and research. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 31, 32–61.Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P., & Loeber, R. (2000). Some benefits of dichotomization in psychiatric and criminological research. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 10, 100–122.Google Scholar
Foster, H., Hagan, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2008). Growing up fast: Stress exposure and subjective “weathering” in emerging adulthood. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49, 162–177.Google Scholar
Gilbert, R., Widom, C. S., Browne, K., Fergusson, D., Webb, E., & Janson, S. (2009). Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet, 373, 68–81.Google Scholar
Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Hagan, J., & Foster, H. (2001). Youth violence and the end of adolescence. American Sociological Review, 66, 874–899.Google Scholar
Hatch, S. L. (2005). Conceptualizing and identifying cumulative adversity and protective resources: Implications for understanding health inequalities. Journal of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60, S130–S134.Google Scholar
Heckman, J. J., Humphries, J. E., & Kautz, T. (Eds.) (2015). The myth of achievement tests: The GED and the role of character in American life. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Henggeler, S. W., Schoenwald, S. K., Borduin, C. M., Rowland, M. D., & Cunningham, P. B. (2009). Multisystemic therapy for antisocial behavior in children and adolescents (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P. (2013). Developmental psychopathology as a scientific discipline. In Beauchaine, T. P. & HInshaw, S. P. (Eds.), Child and Adolescent psychopathology (pp. 3–28). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. (2004). Children's health, the nation's wealth: Assessing and improving child health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. (2014). New directions in child abuse and neglect research. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Jaffee, S. R., Bowes, L., Ouellet-Morin, I., Fisher, H. L., Moffitt, T. E., & Merrick, M. T. (2013). Safe, stable, nurturing relationships break the intergenerational cycle of abuse: A prospective nationally representative cohort of children in the United Kingdom. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53, S4–S10.Google Scholar
Jonson-Reid, M., & Barth, R. (2000). From maltreatment report to juvenile incarceration: The role of child welfare services. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24, 505–520.Google Scholar
Jonson-Reid, M., Kohl, P. L., & Drake, B. (2012). Child and adult outcomes of chronic child maltreatment. Pediatrics, 129, 839–845.Google Scholar
Kane, J. B., Morgan, S. P., Harris, K. M., & Guilkey, D. K. (2013). The educational consequences of teen childbearing. Demography, 50, 2129–2150.Google Scholar
Kaplow, J. B., & Widom, K. S. (2007). Age of onset of child maltreatment predicts long-term mental health outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 176–187.Google Scholar
Keiley, M. K., Howe, T. R., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (2001). The timing of child physical maltreatment: A cross-domain growth analysis of impact on adolescent externalizing and internalizing problems. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 891–912.Google Scholar
Kendall-Tackett, K. A., & Eckenrode, J. (1996). The effects of neglect on academic achievement and disciplinary problems: A developmental perspective. Child Abuse & Neglect, 20, 161–169.Google Scholar
Kim, J. (2009). Type-specific intergenerational transmission of neglectful and physically abusive parenting behaviors among young parents. Children and Youth Services Review, 31, 761–767.Google Scholar
Krohn, M. D., Lizotte, A. J., & Perez, C. M. (1997). The interrelationship between substance use and precocious transitions to adult statuses. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 38, 87–103.Google Scholar
Lange, T., & Hansen, J. V. (2011). Direct and indirect effects in a survival context. Epidemiology, 22, 575–581.Google Scholar
Lansford, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2010). Does physical abuse in early childhood predict substance use in adolescence and early adulthood. Child Maltreatment, 15, 190–194.Google Scholar
Lansford, J. E., Miller-Johnson, S., Berlin, L. J., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (2007). Early physical abuse and later violent delinquency: A prospective longitudinal study. Child Maltreatment, 12, 233–245.Google Scholar
Lynch, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children's symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 235–257.Google Scholar
MacMillan, H. L. (2000). Child maltreatment: What we know in the year 2000. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 45, 702–709.Google Scholar
MacMillan, H. L., Jamieson, E., & Walsh, C. A. (2003). Reported contact with child protection services among those reporting child physical and sexual abuse: Results from a community survey. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27, 1397–1408.Google Scholar
Mercy, J. A., & Saul, J. (2009). Creating a healthier future through early interventions for children. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301, 2262–2264.Google Scholar
Mersky, J. P., Topitzes, J., & Reynolds, A. J. (2012). Unsafe at any age: Linking childhood and adolescent maltreatment to delinquency and crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 49, 295–318.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., & Milne, B. J. (2002). Males on the life-course- persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: Follow-up at age 26 years. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 179–207.Google Scholar
Odgers, C. L., Caspi, A., Nagin, D. S., Piquero, A. R., Slutske, W. S., Milne, B. J., & Moffitt, T. E. (2008). Is it important to prevent early exposure to drugs and alcohol among adolescents? Psychological Science, 19, 1037–1044.Google Scholar
Ohannessian, C. M., Finan, L. J., Schulz, J. S., & Hesselbrock, V. (2015). A long-term longitudinal examination of the effect of early onset of alcohol and drug use on later alcohol abuse. Substance Abuse, 36, 440–444.Google Scholar
Oshri, A., Rogosch, F. A., Burnette, M. L., & Cicchetti, D. (2011). Developmental pathways to adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence: Child maltreatment, emerging personality, and internalizing versus externalizing psychopathology. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 25, 634.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. J. (1992). Antisocial Boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Pearl, J. (2009). Causality: Models, reasoning and inference. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pears, K. C., & Capaldi, D. M. (2001). Intergenerational transmission of abuse: A two generational prospective study of an at-risk sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25, 1439–1461.Google Scholar
Perez, C. M., & Widom, C. S. (1994). Childhood victimization and long-term intellectual and academic outcomes. Child Abuse & Neglect, 18, 617–633.Google Scholar
Prinz, R. J., Sanders, M. R., Shapiro, C. J., Whitaker, D. J., & Lutzker, J. R. (2009). Population-based prevention of child maltreatment: The US Triple P System population trial. Prevention Science, 10, 1–12.Google Scholar
Putnam-Hornstein, E., Cederbaum, J. A., King, B., & Needell, B. (2013). California's most vulnerable parents: When maltreated children have children: A data linkage and analysis project. Conrad N. Hilton Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.cssp.org/reform/child-welfare/pregnant-and-parentingyouth/Vulnerable_Parents_Full_Report_11-11-13.pdfGoogle Scholar
Ryan, R. M., Mendle, J., & Markowitz, A. J. (2015). Early childhood maltreatment and girls' sexual behavior: The mediating role of pubertal timing. Journal of Adolescent Health, 57, 342–347.Google Scholar
Ryan, J. P., Williams, A. B., & Courtney, M. E. (2013). Adolescent neglect, juvenile delinquency and the risk of recidivism. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 454–465.Google Scholar
Schofield, T. J., Lee, R. D., & Merrick, M. T. (2013). Safe, stable, nurturing relationships as a moderator of intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53, S32–S38.Google Scholar
Shackman, J. E., & Pollak, S. D. (2014). Impact of physical maltreatment on the regulation of negative affect and aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 26(4, Pt. 1), 1021–1033.Google Scholar
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). Reactive aggression among maltreated children: The contributions of attention and emotion dysregulation. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 381–395.Google Scholar
Shonkoff, J. P., Boyce, W. T., & McEwen, B. S. (2009). Neuroscience, molecular biology, and the childhood roots of health disparities: Building a new framework for health promotion and disease prevention. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301, 2252–2259.Google Scholar
Simons, R. L., Whitbeck, L. B., Conger, R. D., & Wu, C. I. (1991). Intergenerational transmission of harsh parenting. Developmental Psychology, 27, 159–171.Google Scholar
Stallings, M. C., Cherny, S. S., Young, S. E., Miles, D. R., Hewitt, J. K., & Fulker, D. W. (1997). The familial aggregation of depressive symptoms, antisocial behavior, and alcohol abuse. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 74, 183–191.Google Scholar
Stewart, A., Livingston, M., & Dennison, S. (2008). Transitions and turning points: Examining the links between child maltreatment and juvenile offending. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32, 51–66.Google Scholar
Stith, S. M., Liu, T., Davies, L. C., Boykin, E. L., Alder, M. C., Harris, J. M., … Dees, J. E. M. E. G. (2009). Risk factors in child maltreatment: A meta-analytic review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 13–29.Google Scholar
Straus, M. A., Gelles, R. J., & Smith, C. (1995). Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.Google Scholar
Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., Navalta, C. P., & Kim, D. M. (2003). The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 33–44.Google Scholar
Teicher, M. H., Samson, J. A., Anderson, C. M., & Ohashi, K. (2016). The effects of childhood maltreatment on brain structure, function and connectivity. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 17, 652–666.Google Scholar
Teicher, M. H., Samson, J. A., Polcari, A., & McGreenery, C. E. (2006). Sticks, stones, and hurtful words: Relative effects of various forms of childhood maltreatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 993–1000.Google Scholar
Thornberry, T. P. (2005). Explaining multiple patterns of offending across the life course and across generations. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 602, 156–195.Google Scholar
Thornberry, T. P. (2016). Three generation studies: Methodological challenges and promise. In Shanahan, M. J., Mortimer, J. T., & Kirkpatrick Johnson, M. (Eds.), Handbook of the life course (pp. 571–596). New York: Springer International.Google Scholar
Thornberry, T. P., & Henry, K. L. (2013). Intergenerational continuity in maltreatment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 555–569.Google Scholar
Thornberry, T. P., Henry, K. L., Krohn, M. D., Lizotte, A. J., & Nadel, E. L. (2018). Key findings from the Rochester intergenerational study. In Intergenerational Continuity of Criminal and Antisocial Behavior: An International Overview of Current Studies. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Thornberry, T. P., Henry, K. L., Smith, C. A., Ireland, T. O., Greenman, S. J., & Lee, R. D. (2013). Breaking the cycle of maltreatment: The role of safe, stable, and nurturing relationships. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53, S25–S31.Google Scholar
Thornberry, T. P., Ireland, T. O., & Smith, C. A. (2001). The importance of timing: The varying impact of childhood and adolescent maltreatment on multiple problem outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 957–979.Google Scholar
Thornberry, T. P., Matsuda, M., Greenman, S. J., Augustyn, M. B., Henry, K. L., Smith, C. A., & Ireland, T. O. (2014). Adolescent risk factors for child maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38, 706–722.Google Scholar
Thrane, L. E., Hoyt, D. R., Whitbeck, L. B., & Yoder, K. A. (2006). Impact of family abuse on running away, deviance, and street victimization among homeless rural and urban youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 30, 1117–1128.Google Scholar
Tyler, K. A., & Bersani, B. E. (2008). A longitudinal study of early adolescent precursors to running away. Journal of Early Adolescence, 28, 230–251.Google Scholar
US Department of Health and Human Services. (2012). Child Maltreatment 2011. Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Valeri, L., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2013). Mediation analysis allowing for exposure–mediator interactions and causal interpretation: Theoretical assumptions and implementation with SAS and SPSS macros. Psychological Methods, 18, 137.Google Scholar
Valeri, L., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2015). SAS macro for causal mediation analysis with survival data. Epidemiology, 26, e23–e24.Google Scholar
VanderWeele, T. J. (2011). Causal mediation analysis with survival data. Epidemiology, 22, 582–585.Google Scholar
VanderWeele, T. J., & Vansteelandt, S. (2009). Conceptual issues concerning mediation, interventions and composition. Statistics and Its Interface, 2, 457–468.Google Scholar
VanderWeele, T. J., & Vansteelandt, S. (2010). Odds ratios for mediation analysis for a dichotomous outcome. American Journal of Epidemiology, 172, 1339–1348.Google Scholar
Verlaan, P., & Schwartzman, A. E. (2002). Mother's and father's parental adjustment: Links to externalising behaviour problems in sons and daughters. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26, 214–224.Google Scholar
Westat. (1997). National evaluation of runaway and homeless youth. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth and Families.Google Scholar
Wickrama, K. A. S., Conger, R. D., Lorenz, F. O., & Jung, T. (2008). Family antecedents and consequences of trajectories of depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood: A life course investigation. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49, 468–483.Google Scholar
Wickrama, K. A. S., Conger, R. D., Wallace, L. E., & Elder, G. H. Jr. (2003). Linking early social risks to impaired physical health during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 61–74.Google Scholar
Wickrama, K. K., O'Neal, C. W., & Oshri, A. (2014). Are stressful developmental processes of youths leading to health problems amplified by genetic polymorphisms? The case of body mass index. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 1096–1109.Google Scholar
Widom, C. S. (1988). Sampling biases and implications for child abuse research. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 58, 260–270.Google Scholar
Widom, C. S. (1989). The cycle of violence. Science, 244, 160–166.Google Scholar
Widom, C. S., Czaja, S. J., & DuMont, K. A. (2015). Intergenerational transmission of child abuse and neglect: Real or detection bias? Science, 347, 1480–1485.Google Scholar
Widom, C. S., & Hiller-Sturmhofel, S. (2001). Alcohol abuse as a risk factor for and consequence of child abuse. Alcohol Research & Health, 25, 52.Google Scholar
Widom, C. S., Ireland, T., & Glynn, P. J. (1995). Alcohol abuse in abused and neglected children followed-up: Are they at increased risk? Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 56, 207–217.Google Scholar
Widom, C. S., Raphael, K. G., & DuMont, K. A. (2004). The case for prospective longitudinal studies in child maltreatment research: Commentary on Dube, Williamson, Thompson, Felitti, and Anda (2004). Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 715–722.Google Scholar