Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-v2bm5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-11T03:59:01.029Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Progress in the Neurobiology of Autism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Isabelle Rapin
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

To date, research regarding the neurobiological basis of autism has produced only the most preliminary of data. Although some advances have been made, the need for more definitive knowledge is crucial to more fully understand and treat this disorder.

In this review, the autistic spectrum is discussed in terms of its defining symptoms. These symptoms are explained based on current understanding, and the need for more information regarding the bases of these abnormalities is noted. The critical needs of research are discussed, with an emphasis on areas in urgent need of analysis.

Type
Feature Articles
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 3 , Issue 3: Autism: Emerging Concensus , March 1998 , pp. 50 - 60
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1998

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.Google Scholar
2.World Health Organization. Mental Disorders: Glossary and Guide to Their Classification in Accordance With the Tenth Revision of the International Classification of Diseases. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 1993.Google Scholar
3.Schopler, E, Reichler, RJ, Renner, BR. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) for Diagnostic Screening and Classification in Autism. New York, NY: Irvington; 1986.Google Scholar
4.Krug, DA, Arick, JR, Almond, PJ. Autism Screening Instrument for Educational Planning: Examiner's Manual. Seattle, Wash: ASIEP Education Company; 1980.Google Scholar
5.Lord, C, Rutter, M, Goode, S, et al.Autism diagnostic observation schedule: a standardized observation of communicative and social behavior. J Autism Dev Disord. 1989;19:185–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6.Lord, C, Rutter, M, Le Couteur, A. Autism diagnostic interview-revised: a revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 1994;24:659–685.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7.Wing, L. Wing autistic disorders interview checklist (WADIC). In: Rapin, I, ed. Preschool Children With Inadequate Communication: Developmental Language Disorder, Autism, Low IQ. London, England: Mac Keith Press; 1996;247–251.Google Scholar
8.Rutter, M, Bailey, A, Bolton, P, Le Couteur, A. Autism and known medical conditions: myth and substance. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1994;2:311–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
9.Gillberg, C, Coleman, M. Autism and medical disorders: a review of the literature. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1996;38:191–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10.Fernell, E, Gillberg, C, von Wendt, L. Autistic symptoms in children with infantile hydrocephalus. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1991;80:451–457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11.Bailey, A, Bolton, P, Butler, L, et al.Prevalence of the fragile-X anomaly amongst twins and singletons. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1993;34:673–678.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12.Steffenburg, S, Gillberg, CL, Steffenburg, U, Kyflerman, M. Autism in Angelman syndrome: a population-based study. Pediatr Neurol. 1996;14:131–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13.Howlin, P, Wing, L, Gould, J. The recognition of autism in children with Down syndrome – implications for intervention and some speculations about pathology. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1995;37:406–414.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14.Nelson, LK, Kamhi, AG, Apel, K. Cognitive strengths and weaknesses in language-impaired children: one more look. J Speech Hear Disord. 1987;52:36–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15.Miladi, N, Larnaout, A, Kaabachi, N, Helayem, M, Ben Hamida, M. Phenylketonuria: an underlying etiology of autistic syndrome. A case report. J Child Neurol. 1992;7:22–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Deonna, T, Ziegler, A-L, Mourra-Serra, J, Innocenti, G. Autistic regression in relation to limbic pathology and epilepsy: report of two cases. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1993;35:186–196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17.Gillberg, IC, Gillberg, C, Ahlsen, G. Autistic behavior and attention deficits in tuberous sclerosis: a population-based study. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1994;36:50–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
18.Akefeldt, A, Gillberg, C. Hypomelanosis of Ito in three cases with autism and autistic-like conditions. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1991;33:737–743.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19.Chess, S, Korn, SJ, Fernandez, PB. Psychiatric Disorders of Children with Congenital Rubella. New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel; 1971.Google ScholarPubMed
20.DeLong, GR, Bean, SC, Brown, FRI. Acquired reversible autistic syndrome in acute encephalopathic illness in children. Arch Neurol. 1981;38:191–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21.Gillberg, C. Brief report: onset at age 14 of a typical autistic syndrome. A case report of a girl with herpes simplex encephalitis. J Autism Dev Disord. 1986;16:369–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
22.Gupta, PC, Rapin, I, Houroupian, DS, Roy, S, Llena, JF, Tandon, PN. Smoldering encephalitis in children. Neuropediatrics. 1984;15:191–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23.Gillberg, IC. Autistic syndrome with onset at age 31 years: herpes encephalitis as a possible model for childhood autism. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1991;33:920–924.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24.Hoon, AHJ, Reiss, AL. The mesial-temporal lobe and autism: case report and review. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1992;34:252–263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
25.Bolton, P, MacDonald, H, Pickles, A, et al.A case-control family history study of autism. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1994;35:877–900.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26.Spiker, D, Lotspeich, L, Kraemer, HC, et al.Genetics of autism: characteristics of affected and unaffected children from 37 multiplex families. Am J Med Genet. 1994;54:27–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27.Folstein, SE, Piven, J. Etiology of autism: genetic influences. Pediatrics. 1991;87:767–773.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28.Bailey, A, Le Couteur, A, Gottesman, I, et al.Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: evidence from a British twin study. Psychol Med. 1995;l:63–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29.Gillberg, C. Asperger syndrome in 23 Swedish children. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1992;31:520–531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30.Rutter, M, Bailey, A, Simonoff, E, Pickles, A. Genetic influences and autism. In: Cohen, DJ, Volkmar, FR, eds. Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorder. 2nd ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 1997:370–387.Google Scholar
31.van Gent, T, Heijnen, CJ, Treffers, PD, et al. Autism and the immune system. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1997;38:337–349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32.Warren, RP, Odell, JD, Warren, WL, et al.Brief report: immunoglobulin. A deficiency in a subset of autistic subjects. J Autism Dev Disord. 1997;27:187–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33.Tuehman, RF, Rapin, I, Shinnar, S. Autistic and dysphasic children: II. epilepsy. Pediatrics. 1991;6:1219–1225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
34.Olsson, I, Steffenburg, S, Gillberg, C. Epilepsy in autism and autisticlike conditions: a population-based study. Arch Neurol. 1988;45:666–668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35.Gillberg, C. Autism and related behaviours. J Intel Disabil Res. 1993;37:343–372.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36.Taft, LT, Cohen, H. Hypsarrhythmia and infantile autism: a clinical report. J Autism Child Schizophr. 1971;1:327–336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37.Riikonen, R, Amnell, G. Psychiatric disorders in children with earlier infantile spasms. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1981;23:747–760.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38.Chugani, HT, Da Silva, E, Chugani, DC. Infantile spasms: III: prognostic implications of bitemporal hypometabolism on positron emission tomography. Ann Neurol. 1996;39:643–649.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39.Boyer, J-P, Deschartrette, A, Delwarde, M. Autism convulsif ou syndrome de Lennox-Gastaut? a propos de 9 cas d'autisme infantile associes au syndrome de Lennox-Gastaut. Pediatric. 1981;36:353–368.Google Scholar
40.Hunt, A, Dennis, J. Psychiatric disorder among children with tuberous sclerosis. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1987;29:190–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
41.Hagberg, B, ed. Rett syndrome – Clinical and Biological Aspects. Clinics. in Developmental Medicine No. 127. London: Mac Keith Press; 1993.Google Scholar
42.Tuehman, RF, Rapin, I. Regression in pervasive developmental disorders: seizures and epileptiform EEG correlates. Pediatrics. 1997;99:560–566.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43.Bauman, ML. The neuroanatomy of autism: clinical implications. In: Accardo, PJ, Shapiro, BK, Capute, AJ, eds. Behavior Belongs in the Brain: Neurobehavioral Syndromes. Baltimore, Md: York Press; 1997:69–95.Google Scholar
44.Deonna, TW. Acquired epileptiform aphasia in children (Landau-Kleffner syndrome). J Clin Neurophysiol. 1991;3:288–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
45.Beaumanoir, A, Bureau, M, Deonna, T, et al.Continuous Spikes and Waves During Slow Sleep – Electrical Status Epilepticus During Slow Sleep – Acquired Epileptic Aphasia and Related Conditions. London, England: John Libbey; 1995.Google Scholar
46.Kurita, H, Kita, M, Miyake, Y. A comparative study of development and symptoms among disintegrative psychosis and infantile autism with and without speech loss. J Autism Dev Disord. 1992;2:175–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
47.Volkmar, FR, Cohen, DJ. Disintegrative disorder or “late onset” autism. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1989;5:717–724.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
48.Jayakar, PB, Seshia, SS. Electrical status epilepticus during slow-wave sleep: a review. J Clin Neurophysiol. 1991;3:299–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
49.Rapin, I. Neurological examination. In: Rapin, I, ed. Preschool Children with Inadequate Communication: Developmental Language Disorder, Autism, Low IQ. London, England: Mac Keith Press; 1996:98–122.Google Scholar
50.Tuehman, RF, Rapin, I, Shinnar, S. Autistic and dysphasic children: I: clinical characteristics. Pediatrics. 1991;88:1211–1218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51.Bauman, ML. Motor dysfunction in autism. In: Joseph, AB, Young, RR, eds. Movement Disorders in Neurology and Neuropsychiatry. Boston, Mass: Blackwell; 1992:660–663.Google Scholar
52.Vilensky, JA, Damasio, AR, Maurer, RG. Disturbances of motility in patients with autistic behavior: a preliminary study. Arch Neurol. 1981;38:646–649.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
53.Kohen-Raz, R, Volkmar, FR, Cohen, DJ. Postural control in children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 1992;22:419–432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
54.Jones, V, Prior, M. Motor imitation abilities and neurological signs in autistic children. J Autism Dev Disord. 1985;15:37–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55.DeMyer, MK, Alpern, GD, Barton, S, et al.Imitation in autistic, early schizophrenic, and non-psychotic subnormal children. J Autism Child Schizophr. 1972;2:264–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56.Landgren, M, Pettersson, R, Kjellman, B, Gillberg, C. ADHD, DAMP and other neurodevelopmental/psychiatric disorders in 6-year-old children: epidemiology and co-morbidity. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1996;38:891–906.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57.Bauman, ML, Kemper, TL. Neuroanatomic observations of the brain in autism. In: Bauman, ML, Kemper, TL, eds. The Neurobiology of Autism. Baltimore, Md: The Johns Hopkins University Press; 1994:119–145.Google Scholar
58.Dawson, G, Adams, A. Imitation and social responsiveness in autistic children. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 1984;12:209–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59.Hughes, C. Brief report: planning problems in autism at the level of motor control. J Autism Dev Disord. 1996;26:99–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60.Watson, RT, Gonzales Rothi, LJ, Heilman, KM. Apraxia: a disorder of motor programming. In: Joseph, AB, Young, RR, eds. Movement Disorders in Neurology and Neuropsychiatry. Boston, Mass: Blackwell; 1992:683–691.Google Scholar
61.Meiselas, KD, Spencer, EK, Oberfield, R, Peselow, ED, Angrist, B, Campbell, M. Differentiation of stereotypies from neuroleptic-related dyskinesias in autistic children. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1989;9:207–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62.Sorosky, A, Ornitz, EM, Brown, MB, Ritvo, ER. Systematic observations of autistic behavior. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1968;18:439–449.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
63.Hutt, SJ, Hutt, C, Lee, D, Ounsted, C, et al.Arousal and childhood autism. Nature. 1964;204:908–909.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64.Comings, DE, Comings, BC. Clinical and genetic relationships between autism-pervasive developmental disorder and Tourette syndrome: a study of 19 cases. Am J Med Genet. 1991;39:180–191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
65.Stern, JS, Robertson, MM. Tics associated with autistic and pervasive developmental disorders. Review. Neurol Clin. 1997;15:345–355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
66.Jones, GH, Mittleman, G, Robbins, TW. Attenuation of amphetamine-stereotypy by mesostriatal dopamine depletion enhances plasma corticosterone: implications for stereotypy as a coping response. Behav Neural Biol. 1989;51:80–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
67.Cooper, SJ, Dourish, CT. Neurobiology of Stereotyped Behavior. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
68.Campbell, M, Small, AM, Anderson, LT, Malone, RP, Locascio, JJ. Pharmacotherapy in autism. In: Naruse, H, Ornitz, EM, eds. Neurobiology of Infantile Autism. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Excerpta Medica; 1992:235–243.Google Scholar
69.Kolmen, BK, Feldman, HM, Handen, BL, Janosky, JE. Naltrexone in young autistic children: a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;34:223–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70.O'Neill, M, Jones, RS. Sensory-perceptual abnormalities in autism: a case for more research? Review. J Autism Dev Disord. 1997;27:283–293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
71.Grandin, T. Thinking in Pictures and Other Reports From My Life With Autism. New York, NY: Doubleday; 1995.Google Scholar
72.Ornitz, EM. Autism as the interface between sensory and information processing. In: Dawson, G, ed. Autism: Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1989:174–207.Google Scholar
73.Richer, JM, Coss, RG. Gaze aversion in autistic and normal children. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1976;53:193–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
74.Scharre, JE, Creedon MR Assessment of visual function in autistic children. Optom Vis Sci. 1992;69:433–439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
75.Sandman, CA, Hetrick, WP. Opiate mechanisms in selfinjury. Ment Retard Dev Disabil. 1995;2:137–148.Google Scholar
76.Herman, BH. A possible role of proopiomelanocortin peptides in self-injurious behavior. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 1990;14:S109–S139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
77.Durand, VM, Crimmins, DB. Identifying the variables maintaining self-injurious behavior. J Autism Dev Disord. 1988;18:99–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
78.Fein, D, Dunn, M, Allen, DA, et al.Language and neuropsychological findings. In: Rapin, I, ed. Preschool Children with Inadequate Communication: Developmental Language Disorder, Autism, Low IQ. London, England: Mac Keith Press; 1996:123–154.Google Scholar
79.Frith, U. Autism: Explaining the Enigma. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell; 1989.Google Scholar
80.Ehlers, S, Nyden, A, Gillberg, C, et al.Asperger syndrome, autism and attention disorders: a comparative study of the cognitive profiles of 120 children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1997;38:207–217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
81.Lockyer, L, Rutter, M. A five- to fifteen-year follow-up study of infantile psychosis: IV. patterns of cognitive ability. Br J Soc Clin Psychol. 1970;9:152–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82.Obler, LK, Fein, D, eds. The Exceptional Brain: Neuropsychology of Talent and Special Abilities. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1988.Google Scholar
83.Treffert, DA. Extraordinary People: Understanding “Idiot Savants.” New York, NY: Harper & Row; 1989.Google Scholar
84.Mundy, P, Sigman, MD, Kasari, C. A longitudinal study of joint attention and language development in autistic children. J Autism Dev Disord. 1990;20:115–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85.Ozonoff, S, McEvoy, RE. A longitudinal study of executive function and theory of mind development in autism. Dev Psychopathol. 1994;6:415–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
86.Haznedar, MM, Buchsbaum, MS, Metzger, M, Solimando, A, Spiegel-Cohen, J, Hollander, E. Anterior cingulate gyrus volums and glucose metabolism in autistic disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:1043–1045.Google Scholar
87.Segawa, M, Katoh, M, Katoh, J, Nomura, Y. Early modulation of sleep parameters and its importance in later behavior. Brain Dysfunct. 1992;5:211–223.Google Scholar
88.Richdale, AL, Prior, MR. The sleep/wake rhythm in children with autism. Europ Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;4:175–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
89.Rapin, I. Historical data. In: Rapin, I, ed. Preschool Children With Inadequate Communication: Developmental Language Disorder, Autism, Low IQ. London, England: Mac Keith Press; 1996:58–97.Google Scholar
90.Ballaban-Gil, K, Rapin, I, Tuchman, RF, Shinnar, S. Longitudinal examination of the behavioral, language, and social changes in a population of adolescents and young adults with autistic disorder. Pediatr Neurol. 1996;15:217–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
91.Miranda-Linne, FM, Melin, L. A comparison of speaking and mute individuals with autism and autistic-like conditions on the Autism Behavior Checklist. J Autism Dev Disord. 1997;27:245–264.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
92.Dunn, M, Rapin, I. Communication in autistic children. In: Accardo, PJ, Shapiro, BK, Capute, AJ, eds. Behavior Belongs in the Brain: Neurobehavioral Syndromes. Timonium, Md: York Press; 1997:97–111.Google Scholar
93.Tager-Flusberg, H. Dissociation in form and function in the acquisition of language by autistic children. In: Tager-Flusberg, H, ed. Constraints on Language Acquisition: Studies of Atypical Children. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1994:175–194.Google Scholar
94.Dunn, M, Gomes, H, Sebastian, M. Prototypicality of responses in autistic language disordered and normal children in a verbal fluency task. Child Neuropsychology. 1996;2:99–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
95.Hara, H, Sasaki, M. Autistic syndrome and epilepsy: a comparison between the children with epileptic seizures only with epileptiform EEG abnormalities. In: Naruse, H, Ornitz, EM, eds. Neurobiology of Infantile Autism. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science; 1992:201–202.Google Scholar
96.Klin, A. Auditory brain stem responses in autism: brain stem dysfunction or peripheral hearing loss? J Autism Dev Disord. 1993;23:15–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
97.Jure, R, Rapin, I, Tuchman, RF. Hearing-impaired autistic children. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1991;33:1062–1072.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
98.Gillberg, C, Steffenburg, S. Autistic behavior in Moebius syndrome. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1989;78:314–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
99.Kemner, C, Verbaten, MN, Cuperus, JM, Camfferman, G, van Engerland, H. Auditory event-related brain potentials in autistic children and three different control groups. Biol Psychiatry. 1995;38:150–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
100.Klein, SK, Kurtzberg, D, Brattson, A, et al.Electrophysiologic manifestations of impaired temporal lobe auditory processing in verbal auditory agnosia. Brain Lang. 1995;51:383–405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
101.Dawson, G, Finley, C, Phillips, S, Galpert, L. Hemispheric specialization and the language abilities of autistic children. Child Dev. 1986;57:1440–1453.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
102. Strandburg, RJ, Marsh, JT, Brown, WS, Asarnow, RF, Guthrie, D, Higa, J. Event-related potentials in high-functioning adult autistics: linguistic and nonlinguistic visual information processing tasks. Neuropsychologia. 1993;31:413–434.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
103.Dunn, M, Vaughan, HGJ. Electrophysiologic correlates of semantic classification. Journal of the International Neuropsychology Society (JINS). 1997;3:62. Abstract.Google Scholar
104.Courchesne, E, Lincoln, AJ, Yeung-Courchesne, R, Elmasian, R, Grillon, C. Pathophysiologic findings in non-retarded autism and receptive developmental language disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 1989;19:1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
105.Courchesne, E, Lincoln, AJ, Kilman, BA, Galambos, R. Event-related brain potential correlates of the processing of novel visual and auditory information in autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 1985;15:55–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
106.Courchesne, E, Akshoomoff, NA, Townsend, J. Recent advances in autism. In: Naruse, H, Ornitz, EM, eds. Neurobiology of Infantile Autism. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Excerpta Medica; 1992:111–128.Google Scholar
107.Ciesielski, KT, Knight, JE, Prince, RJ, Harris, RJ, Handmaker, SD. Event-related potentials in cross-modal divided attention in autistic and normal individuals. Neuropsychologia. 1995;33:225–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
108.Lincoln, AJ, Courchesne, E, Harms, L, Allen, M. Contextual probability evaluation in autistic, receptive developmental language disorder, and control children: event-related potential evidence. J Autism Dev Disord. 1993;23:37–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
109.Pritchard, WS, Raz, N, August, GJ. Visual augmenting/reducing and P300 in autistic children. J Autism Dev Disord. 1987;17:231–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
110.Verbaten, MN, Roelofs, JW, van Engeland, H, Kenemans, JK, Slangen, JL. Abnormal visual event related potentials of autistic children. J Autism Dev Disord. 1991;21:449–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
111.Courchesne, E, Yeung-Courchesne, R, Press, GA, Hesselink, MD, Jernigan, TL. Hypoplasia of cerebellar vermal lobules VI and VII in autism. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:1349–1354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
112.Courchesne, E, Townsend, J, Saitoh, O. The brain in infantile autism: posterior fossa structures are abnormal. Neurology. 1994;44:214–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
113.Filipek, PA. Quantitative MRI in autism: the cerebellar vermis. Curr Opin Neurol. 1995;2:134–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
114.Piven, J, Nehme, E, Simon, J, Barta, P, Pearlson, G, Folstein, SE. Magnetic resonance imaging in autism: measurement of the cerebellum, pons, and fourth ventricle. Biol Psychiatry. 1992;31:491–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
115.Courchesne, E, Saitoh, O, Yeung-Courchesne, R, et al.Abnormality of cerebellar vermian lobules VI and VII in patients with infantile autism: identification of hypoplastic and hyperplastic subgroups. Am J Roentgenol. 1994;162:123–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
116.Gaffney, GR, Kuperman, S, Tsai, LY, Minchin, S. Morphological evidence for brainstem involvement in infantile autism. Biol Psychiatry. 1988;24:578–586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
117.Rodier, PM, Ingram, JL, Tisdale, B, Nelson, S, Romano, J. Embryological origin for autism: developmental anomalies of the cranial motor nuclei. J Comp Neurol. 1996;370:247–261.3.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
118.Coleman, PD, Romano, J, Lapham, L, Simon, W. Cell counts in cerebral cortex of an autistic patient. J Autism Dev Disord. 1985;15:245–255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
119.Raymond, GV, Bauman, ML, Kemper, TL. Hippocampus in autism: a Golgi analysis. Acta Neuropathol. 1996:91:117–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
120.Bachevalier, J, Merjanian, PM. The contribution of medial temporal lobe structures in infantile autism: a neurobehavioral study in primates. In: Bauman, ML, Kemper, TL, eds. The Neurobiology of Autism. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1994:146–169.Google Scholar
121.DeLong, GR, Heinz, ER. The clinical syndrome of early-life bilateral hippocampal sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 1997:42:11–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
122.Neville, BG, Harkness, WF, Cross, JH, et al.Surgical treatment of severe autistic regression in childhood epilepsy. Pediatr Neurol. 1997;16:137–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
123.Nass, R, Heier, L, Walker, R. Landau-Kleffner syndrome: temporal lobe tumor resection results in good outcome. Pediatr Neurol. 1993;9:303–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
124.Courchesne, E, Press, GA, Yeung-Courchesne, R. Parietal lobe abnormalities detected with MR in patients with infantile autism. Am J Roentgenol. 1994;162:236–237.Google Scholar
125.Piven, J, Bailey, J, Ranson, BJ, Arndt, S. An MRI study of the corpus callosum in autism. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:1051–1056.Google ScholarPubMed
126.Piven, J, Berthier, ML, Starkstein, SE, Nehme, E, Pearlson, G, Folstein, S. Magnetic resonance imaging evidence for a defect of cerebral cortical development in autism. Am J Psychiatry. 1990;147:734–739.Google ScholarPubMed
127.Filipek, PA, Richelme, C, Kennedy, DN, et al: Morphometric analysis of the brain in developmental language disorders and autism. Ann Neurol. 1992;32:475. Abstract.Google Scholar
128.Rapin, I, ed. Preschool Children With Inadequate Communication: Developmental Language Disorders, Autism, Low IQ. Clinics in Developmental Medicine No. 139. London, England: Mac Keith Press; 1996.Google Scholar
129.Woodhouse, W, Bailey, A, Rutter, M, Bolton, P, Baird, G, Le Couteur, A. Head circumference in autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1996;37:665–671.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
130.Lainhart, JE, Piven, J, Wzorek, M, et al.Macrocephaly in children and adults with autism. J Am Acad Child Adol Psychiatry. 1997;36:282–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
131.Piven, J, Arndt, S, Bailey, J, Havercamp, S, Andreasen, NC, Palmer, P. An MRI study of brain size in autism. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152:1145–1149.Google ScholarPubMed
132.Bailey, A, Luthert, P, Bolton, P, Le Couteur, A, Rutter, M, Harding, B. Autism and megaloencephaly. Lancet. 1993;341:1225–1226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
133.Gillberg, IC, Bjure, J, Uvebrant, P, Vestergren, E, Gillberg, C. SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography) in 31 children and adolescents with autism and autistic-like conditions. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993;2:50–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
134.Mountz, JM, Tolbert, LC, Lill, DW, Katholi, CR, Liu, HG. Functional deficits in autistic disorder characterization by technetium – 99m – HMPAO and SPECT. J Nucl Med. 1995;36:1156–1162.Google ScholarPubMed
135.Minshew, NJ, Goldstein, G, Dombrowski, SM, Panchalingam, K, Pettegrew, JW. A preliminary 31P MRS study of autism: evidence for undersynthesis and increased degradation of brain membranes. Biol Psychiatry. 1993;33:762–773.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
136.Horwitz, B, Rumsey, JM, Grady, CL, Rapoport, SL. The cerebral metabolic landscape in autism. Arch Neurol. 1988;45:405–424.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
137.Hashimoto, T, Tayama, M, Miyazaki, M, et al.Differences in brain metabolites between patients with autism and mental retardation as detected by in vivo localized proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Child Neurol. 1997;12:91–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
138.Siegel, BVJ, Asarnow, R, Tanguay, P, et al.Regional cerebral glucose metabolism and attention in adults with a history of childhood autism. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1992;4:406–414.Google ScholarPubMed
139.Minshew, NJ. In vivo brain chemistry of autism 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies. In: Bauman, ML, Kemper, TL, eds. The Neurobiology of Autism. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1994:86–101.Google Scholar
140.Cook, EH. Autism: review of neurochemical investigation. Synapse. 1990;6:292–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
141.Gillberg, C. The psychopharmacology of autism and related disorders. J Psychopharmacol. 1996;10:54–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
142.Minderaa, RB, Anderson, GB, Volkmar, FR, Akkerhuis, GW, Cohen, DJ. Noradrenergic and adrenergic function in autism. Biol Psychiatry. 1994;36:237–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
143.Schain, RJ, Freedman, DX. Studies on 5-hydroxyindole metabolism in autism and other mentally retarded children. J Pediatr. 1961;59:315–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
144.Singh, VK, Singh, EA, Warren, RP. Hyperserotoninemia and serotonin receptor antibodies in children with autism but not mental retardation. Biol Psychiatry. 1997;41:753–755.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
145.Cook, EHJ, Courchesne, R, Lord, C, et al.Evidence of linkage between the serotonin transporter and autistic disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 1997;2:247–250.Google ScholarPubMed
146.Chugani, DC, Muzik, O, Rothermel, R, et al.Altered serotonin synthesis in the dentatothalamocortical pathway in autistic boys. Ann Neurol. 1997;42:666–669.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
147.McDougle, CJ, Price, LH, Volkmar, FR. Recent advances in the pharmacotherapy of autism and related conditions. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1994;l:71–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
148.Campbell, M, Anderson, LT, Small, AM, Adams, P, Gonzalez, NM, Ernst, M. Naltrexone in autistic children: behavioral symptoms and attentional learning. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993;32:1283–1291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
149.Panksepp, J. A neurochemical theory of autism. Trends in Neuroscience (TINS). 1979;2:174–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
150.Modahl, C, Fein, D, Waterhouse, L, Newton, N. Does oxytocin deficiency mediate social deficits in autism? J Autism Dev Disord. 1992;24:449–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
151.Waterhouse, L, Fein, D, Modahl, C. Neurofunctional mechanisms in autism. Psychol Rev. 1996;103:457–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
152.Ahlsen, G, Rosengren, L, Belfrage, M, et al.Glial fibrillary acidic protein in the cerebrospinal fluid of children with autism and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Biol Psychiatry. 1993;33:734–743.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
153.Plioplys, AV, Hemmens, SE, Regan, CM. Expression of a neural cell adhesion molecule serum fragment is depressed in autism. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1990;2:413–417.Google ScholarPubMed
154.Warren, RP, Yonk, J, Burger, RW, Odell, D, Warren, WL. DR-positive T cells in autism: association with decreased plasma levels of the complement C4B protein. Neuropsychobiology. 1995;31:53–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
155.Warren, RP, Odell, JD, Warren, L, et al.Strong association of the third hypervariable region of HLA-DRB 1 with autism. J Immunol. 1996;67:97–102.Google Scholar
156.Todd, RD, Hickok, JM, Anderson, GM, Cohen, DJ. Antibrain antibodies in infantile autism. Biol Psychiatry. 1988;23:644–647.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
157.Weizman, A, Weizman, R, Szekely, GA, Wijsenbeek, H, Livni, E. Abnormal immune response to brain tissue antigen in the syndrome of autism. Am J Psychiatry. 1982;139:1462–1465.Google ScholarPubMed
158.Cook, EHJ, Perry, BD, Dawson, G, Wainwright, MS, Leventhal, BL. Receptor inhibition by immunoglobulins: specific inhibition by autistic children, their relatives, and control subjects. J Autism Dev Disord. 1993;23:67–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
159.Zimmerman, AW, Frye, VH, Potter, NT. Immunologic aspects of autism. International Pediatrics. 1993;8:199–204.Google Scholar
160.Akshoomoff, NA, Courchesne, E. A new role of the cerebellum in cognitive operations. Behav Neurosci. 1992;106:157–168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
161.Schmahmann, JD: The cerebellum in autism: clinical and anatomic perspectives. In: Bauman, ML, Kemper, TL, eds. The Neurobiology of Autism. Baltimore, Md: The Johns Hopkins University Press; 1994:195–226.Google Scholar
162.Schmahmann, JD, ed. The Cerebellum and Cognition. International Rewiew of Neurobiology. Vol 41. San Diego, Calif: Academic Press; 1997.Google Scholar