Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-s6l46 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-31T14:02:00.159Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A socio-relational framework of sex differences in the expression of emotion

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2009

Jacob Miguel Vigil
Jacob Miguel Vigil
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Center for Applied Research in Child and Adolescent Development, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL 32224-2673. j.vigil@unf.eduhttp://www.unf.edu/~j.vigil/
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Despite a staggering body of research demonstrating sex differences in expressed emotion, very few theoretical models (evolutionary or non-evolutionary) offer a critical examination of the adaptive nature of such differences. From the perspective of a socio-relational framework, emotive behaviors evolved to promote the attraction and aversion of different types of relationships by advertising the two most parsimonious properties of reciprocity potential, or perceived attractiveness as a prospective social partner. These are the individual's (a) perceived capacity or ability to provide expedient resources, or to inflict immediate harm onto others, and their (b) perceived trustworthiness or probability of actually reciprocating altruism (Vigil 2007). Depending on the unique social demands and relational constraints that each sex evolved, individuals should be sensitive to advertise “capacity” and “trustworthiness” cues through selective displays of dominant versus submissive and masculine versus feminine emotive behaviors, respectively. In this article, I introduce the basic theoretical assumptions and hypotheses of the framework, and show how the models provide a solid scaffold with which to begin to interpret common sex differences in the emotional development literature. I conclude by describing how the framework can be used to predict condition-based and situation-based variation in affect and other forms of expressive behaviors.

Keywords

emotionevolutionary psychologyfemininitymasculinityaffectmotivationnonverbal behaviorssex differencessocial behaviorssocial cognition

Information

Type
Main Articles
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 32 , Issue 5 , October 2009 , pp. 375 - 390
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Adolphs, R. & Tranel, D. (2004) Impaired judgments of sadness but not happiness following bilateral amygdala damage. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 16:453–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adolphs, R., Tranel, D. & Damasio, A. R. (1998) The human amygdala in social judgment. Nature 393:470–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Agrawal, A., Jacobson, K. C., Prescott, C. A. & Kendler, K. S. (2002) A twin study of sex differences in social support. Psychological Medicine 32:1155–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Agumadu, C. O., Yousufi, S. M., Malik, I. S., Nguyen, M. T., Jackson, M. A., Soleymani, K., Thrower, C. M., Peterman, M. J., Walters, G. W., Niemtzoff, M. J., Bartko, J. J. & Postolache, Y. T. (2004) Seasonal variation in mood in African American college students in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area. American Journal of Psychiatry 161:1084–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, N. B. & Badcock, P. B. T. (2003) The social risk hypothesis of depressed mood: Evolutionary, psychosocial, and neurobiological perspectives. Psychological Bulletin 129:887–913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andersen, S. M. & Chen, S. (2002) The relational self: An interpersonal social-cognitive theory. Psychological Review 109:619–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, K. J. & Leaper, C. (1998) Meta-analyses of gender effects on conversational interruption: Who, what, when, where, and how. Sex Roles 39:225–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arabin, B., Bos, R., Rijlaarsdam, R., Mohnhaupt, A. & van Eyck, J., (1996) The onset of inter-human contacts: Longitudinal ultrasound observations in early twin pregnancies. Ultrasound Obstetrics and Gynecology 8:166–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, J. (2004) Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology 8:291–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arsenio, W. F., Cooperman, S. & Lover, A. (2000) Affective predictors of preschoolers' aggression and peer acceptance: Direct and indirect effects. Developmental Psychology 36:438–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aureli, F. (1997) Post-conflict anxiety in nonhuman primates: The mediating role of emotion in conflict resolution. Aggressive Behavior 23:315–28.3.0.CO;2-H>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bachorowski, J. & Owren, M. J. (2001) Not all laughs are alike: Voiced but not unvoiced laughter readily elicits positive affect. Psychological Science 12:252–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A., Ross, D. & Ross, S. A. (1961) Transmission of aggressions through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 63:575–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron-Cohen, S., Knickmeyer, R. C. & Belmonte, M. K. (2005) Sex differences in the brain: Implications for explaining autism. Science 310:819–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron-Cohen, S. & Wheelwright, S. (2004) The empathy quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 34:163–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barrett, L. F. (1998) Discrete emotions or dimensions? The role of valence focus and arousal focus. Cognition and Emotion 12:579–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartels, A. & Zeki, S. (2004) The neural correlates of maternal and romantic love. NeuroImage 21:1155–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, R. F. & Sommer, K. L. (1997) What do men want? Gender differences and two spheres of belongingness: Comment on Cross and Madson (1997). Psychological Bulletin 122:38–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bayliss, A. P. & Tipper, S. P. (2006) Predictive gaze cues and personality judgments. Should I trust you? Psychological Science 17:514–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Becht, M. C. & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (2002) Crying and mood change: A cross-cultural study. Cognition and Emotion 16:87–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belle, D. (1987) Gender differences in the social moderators of stress. In: Gender and stress, ed. Barnett, R. C., Biener, L. & Baruch, G. K., pp. 257–77. Free Press.Google Scholar
Benenson, J. F. (1993) Greater preference among females than males for dyadic interaction in early childhood. Child Development 64:544–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benenson, J. F. & Christakos, A. (2003) The greater fragility of females' versus males' closest same-sex friendships. Child Development 74:1123–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benenson, J. F., Maiese, R., Dolenszky, E., Dolensky, N., Sinclair, N. & Simpson, A. (2002) Group size regulates self-assertive versus self-depreciating responses to interpersonal competition. Child Development 73:1818–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benenson, J. F. & Schinazi, J. (2004) Sex differences in reactions to outperforming same-sex friends. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 22:317–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benetti-McQuoid, J. & Bursik, K. (2005) Individual differences in experiences of and responses to guilt and shame: Examining the lenses of gender and gender role. Sex Roles 53:133–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ben-Ner, A., Putterman, L., Kong, F. & Magan, D. (2004) Reciprocity in a two-part dictator game. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 53:333–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bente, G., Donaghy, W. C. & Suwelack, D. (1998) Sex differences in body movement and visual attention: An integrated analysis of movement and gaze in mixed-sex dyads. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 22:31–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Besson, M., Magne, C. & Schön, D. (2002) Emotional prosody: Sex differences in sensitivity to speech melody. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 6:405–407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birditt, K. S. & Fingerman, K. L. (2003) Age and gender differences in adults' descriptions of emotional reactions to interpersonal problems. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences 58:237–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blau, P. M. & Duncan, O. D. (1967) The American occupational structure. Wiley.Google Scholar
Bogner, H. R. & Gallo, J. J. (2004) Are higher rates of depression in women accounted for by differential symptom reporting? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 39:126–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolte, A., Goschke, T. & Kuhl, J. (2003) Emotion and intuition: Effects of positive and negative mood on implicit judgments of semantic coherence. Psychological Science 14:416–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonanno, G. A. & Keltner, D. (2004) The coherence of emotion systems: Comparing “on-line” measures of appraisal and facial expressions, and self-report. Cognition and Emotion 18:431–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bond, M. H. (1993) Emotions and their expression in Chinese culture. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 17:245–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boone, R. T. & Buck, R. (2003) Emotional expressivity and trustworthiness: The role of nonverbal behavior in the evolution of cooperation. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 27:163–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Booth, A., Granger, D. A. & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2008) Gender- and age-related differences in the association between social relationship quality and trait levels of salivary cortisol. Journal of Research on Adolescence 18:239–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breiger, R. L. (1995) Social structure and the phenomenology of attainment. Annual Review of Sociology 21:115–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brew, F. P., Hesketh, B. & Taylor, A. (2001) Individualistic-collectivist differences in adolescent decision making and decision styles with Chinese and Anglos. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 25:1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brody, L. R. & Hall, J. A. (2000) Gender, emotion, and expression. In: Handbook of emotions, 2nd edition, ed. Lewis, M. & Haviland-Jones, J. M., pp. 338–49. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979) The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, G. W. (2000) Emotion and clinical depression: An environmental view. In: Handbook of emotions, 2nd edition, ed. Lewis, M. & Haviland-Jones, J. M., pp. 75–90. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Brugha, T. S., Bebbington, P. E., MacCarthy, B., Sturt, E. & Wykes, T. (1990) Gender, social support and recovery from depressive disorders: A prospective clinical study. Psychological Medicine 20:147–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buck, R. (1999) The biological affects: A typology. Psychological Review 106:301–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buckingham, G., DeBruine, L. M., Little, A. C., Welling, L. L. M. & Conway, C. A. (2006) Visual adaptation to masculine and feminine faces influences generalized preferences and perceptions of trustworthiness. Evolution and Human Behavior 27:381–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bugental, D. B. (2000) Acquisition of the algorithms of social life: A domain-based approach. Psychological Bulletin 126:187–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bugental, D. B. & Lewis, J. C. (1998) Interpersonal power repair in response to threats to control from dependent others. In: Personal control in action: Cognitive and motivational mechanisms, ed. Kofta, M., Weary, G. & Sedek, G., pp. 341–62. Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burke, R. J., Weir, T. & Harrison, D. (1976) Disclosure of problems and tensions experienced by marital partners. Psychological Reports 38:531–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bushman, B. J., Wang, M. C. & Anderson, C. A. (2005) Is the curve relating temperature to aggression linear or curvilinear? Assaults and temperature in Minneapolis reexamined. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89:62–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, K. A. & Kiel, E. J. (2004) Comparison of sadness, anger, and fear facial expressions when toddlers look at their mothers. Child Development 75:1761–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cacioppo, J. T., Klein, D. J., Berntson, G. G. & Hatfield, E. (1993) The psychophysiology of emotion. In: Handbook of emotions, 2nd edition, ed. Lewis, M. & Haviland, J. M., pp. 119–42. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Caldwell, M. S., Rudolph, K. D., Troop-Gordon, W. & Kim, D. (2004) Reciprocal influences among relational self-views, social disengagement, and peer stress during early adolescence. Child Development 75:1140–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campanella, S., Rossignol, M., Mejias, S., Joassin, F., Mauage, P., Debatisse, D., Bruyer, R., Crommelinck, M. & Guérit, J. M. (2004) Human gender differences in an emotional visual oddball task: An event-related potentials study. Neuroscience Letters 367:14–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, D. W. & Eaton, W. O. (1999) Sex differences in the activity level of infants. Infant and Child Development 8:1–17.3.0.CO;2-O>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camras, L. A., Holland, E. A. & Patterson, M. J. (1993) Facial expression. In: Handbook of emotions, 1st edition, ed. Lewis, M. & Haviland, J. M., pp. 199–208. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Carson, R. C. (1969) Interaction concepts of personality. Aldine.Google Scholar
Cashdan, E. (1998) Smiles, speech, and body posture: How women and men display sociometric status and power. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 22:209–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cellerino, A., Borghetti, D. & Sartucci, F. (2004) Sex differences in face gender recognition in humans. Brain Research Bulletin 63:443–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, L. (2004) The role of classroom norms in contextualizing the relations of children's social behaviors to peer acceptance. Developmental Psychology 40:691–702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chapman, A. J. (1973) Social facilitation of laughter in children. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 9:528–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, A. J. (1975) Humorous laughter in children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31:42–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, E., Langer, D. A., Raphaelson, Y. E. & Mathews, K. A. (2004) Socioeconomic status and health in adolescents: The role of stress interpretations. Child Development 75:1039–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cillessen, A. H. N. & Mayeux, L. (2004) From censure to reinforcement: Developmental changes in the association between aggression and social status. Child Development 75:147–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, S., Frank, E., Doyle, W. J., Skoner, D. P., Rabin, B. S. & Gwaltney, J. M. (1998) Types of stressors that increase susceptibility to the common cold in healthy adults. Health Psychology 17:214–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohn, L. D. (1991) Sex differences in the course of personality development: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 109:252–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, D. A., Martin, J. M., Peeke, L. A., Seroczynski, A. D. & Fier, J. (1999) Children's over- and underestimation of academic competence: A longitudinal study of gender differences, depression, and anxiety. Child Development 70:459–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, N. L. & Miller, L. C. (1994) Self-disclosure and liking: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin 116:457–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cosmides, L. (1983) Invariances in the acoustic expression of emotion during speech. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 9:864–81.Google ScholarPubMed
Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J. (2000) Evolutionary psychology and the emotions. In: Handbook of emotions, 2nd edition, ed. Lewis, M. & Haviland-Jones, J. M., pp. 91–115. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Costa, M., Dinsbach, W., Manstead, A. S. R. & Bitti, P. E. R. (2001) Social presence, embarrassment, and nonverbal behavior. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 25:225–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cottrell, C. A., Neuberg, S. L. & Li, N. P. (2007) What do people desire in others? A sociofunctional perspective on the importance of different valued characteristics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92:208–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cramer, D., Henderson, S. & Scott, R. (1997) Mental health and desired social support: A four-wave panel study. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 14:761–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crick, N. R. & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2003) The development of psychopathology in females and males: Current progress and future challenges. Development and Psychopathology 15:719–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crusco, A. H. & Wetzel, C. G. (1984) The Midas touch. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 10:512–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1988) Homicide. Aldine de Gruyter.Google ScholarPubMed
Darwin, C. (1859) On the origin of species by means of natural selection. John Murray.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1872) The expression of the emotions in man and animals. John Murray.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darwin, C. (1882) The descent of man and selection in relation to sex, 2nd edition. John Murray.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, R. J. (1993) The neuropsychology of emotion and affective style. In: Handbook of emotions, ed. Lewis, M. & Haviland, J. M., pp. 143–54. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Davidson, R. J., Jackson, D. C. & Kalin, N. H. (2000) Emotion, plasticity, context, and regulation: Perspectives from affective neuroscience. Psychological Bulletin 126:890–909.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, M. C., Matthews, K. A. & Twamley, E. W. (1999) Is life more difficult on Mars or Venus? A meta-analysis review of sex differences in major and minor life events. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 21:83–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Fruyt, F., (1997) Gender and individual differences in adult crying. Personality and Individual Differences 22:937–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Graaf, R., van Dorsselaer, S., ten Have, M., Schoemaker, C., & Vollebergh, W. A. M. (2005) Seasonal variations in mental disorders in the general population of a country with a maritime climate: Findings from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 162:654–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Jong, P. J. (1999) Communicative and remedial effects of social blushing. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 23:197–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Vliert, E. V., Huang, X. & Parker, P. M. (2004) Do colder and hotter climates make richer societies more, but poorer societies less, happy and altruistic? Journal of Environmental Psychology 24:17–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M. (1993) Sex differences in chimpanzee (and human) behavior: A matter of social values? In: The origin of values, ed. Hechter, M., Nadel, L. & Michod, R. E., pp. 285–303. Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M. (2000) Primates: A natural heritage of conflict resolution. Science 289:586–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diala, C. C. & Muntaner, C. (2003) Mood and anxiety disorders among rural, urban, and metropolitan residents in the United States. Community Mental Health Journal 39:239–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diener, E. & Seligman, E. P. (2002) Very happy people. Psychological Science 13:81–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dimitrovsky, L., Spector, H. & Levi-Schiff, R. (2000) Stimulus gender and emotion difficulty level: Their effect on recognition of facial expressions of affect in children with and without LD. Journal of Learning Disabilities 33:410–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dindia, K. (1987) The effects of sex of subject and sex of partner on interruptions. Human Communication Research 13:345–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dindia, K. & Allen, M. (1992) Sex differences in self-disclosure: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 112:106–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DuBois, D. L., Felner, R. D., Brand, S., Philips, R. S. C. & Lease, A. M. (1996) Early adolescent self-esteem: A developmental-ecological framework and assessment strategy. Journal of Research on Adolescence 6:543–79.Google Scholar
Dunn, J. (2003) Emotional development in early childhood: A social relationship perspective. In: The handbook of affective science, ed. Davidson, R., Goldsmith, H. H. & Scherer, K., pp. 332–46. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., Ashmore, R. D., Makhijani, M. G. & Longo, L. C. (1991) What is beautiful is good, but … : A meta-analytic review of research on the physical attractiveness stereotype. Psychological Bulletin 110:109–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, A. H. & Crowley, M. (1986) Gender and helping behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Bulletin 100:283–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eaton, W. O. & Enns, L. R. (1986) Sex differences in human motor activity level. Psychological Bulletin 100:19–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Karbon, M., Murphy, B. C., Carlo, G. & Wosinski, M. (1996) Relations of school children's comforting behavior to empathy-related reactions and shyness. Social Development 5:330–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N. & Lennon, R. (1983) Sex differences in empathy and related capacities. Psychological Bulletin 94:101–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Losoya, S. & Spinrad, T. (2003) Affect and prosocial responding. In: The handbook of affective science, ed. Davidson, R., Goldsmith, H. H. & Scherer, K., pp. 787–803. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ekehammar, B., Akrami, N. & Araya, T. (2003) Gender differences in implicit prejudice. Personality and Individual Differences 34:1509–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elfenbein, H. & Ambady, N. (2003) Universals and cultural differences in recognizing emotions. Current Directions in Psychological Science 12:159–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H. & Van Hulle, C. A. (2006) Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 132:33–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Engell, A. D., Haxby, J. V. & Todorov, A. (2007) Implicit trustworthiness decisions: Automatic coding of face properties in the human amygdala. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 19:1508–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eysenck, H. J. (1976) Sex and personality. Open Books.Google Scholar
Fabes, R. A., Carlo, G., Kupanokk, K. & Laible, D. (1999) Early adolescence and prosocial/moral behavior: I. The role of individual processes. Journal of Early Adolescence 19:5–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fabes, R. A. & Eisenberg, N. (1998) Meta-analyses of age and sex differences in children's and adolescents' prosocial behavior. In: Handbook of child psychology, vol. 3: Socialization, personality, and social development, ed. Eisenberg;, N.5th edition, ed. Eisenberg;, N.Wiley. Available at: http://www.public.asu.edu/~rafabes/meta.pdf.Google Scholar
Farmer, T. W., Bishop, D. B., O'Neal, K. K. & Cairns, B. D. (2003) Rejected bullies or popular leaders? The social relations of aggressive subtypes of rural African American early adolescents. Developmental Psychology 39:992–1004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feingold, A. (1994) Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 116:429–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feingold, A. & Mazzella, R. (1998) Gender differences in body image are increasing. Psychological Science 9:190–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiske, S. T. (1993a) Controlling other people: The impact of power on stereotyping. American Psychologist 48:621–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fiske, S. T. (1993b) Social cognition and social perception. Annual Review of Psychology 44:155–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flinn, M. V. & England, B. G. (2003) Childhood stress: Endocrine and immune responses to psychosocial events. In: Social and cultural lives of immune systems, ed. Wilce, J. M., pp. 107–47. Routledge.Google Scholar
Forgas, J. P. (2003) Affective influences on attitudes and judgments. In: The handbook of affective science, ed. Davidson, R., Goldsmith, H. H. & Scherer, K., pp. 596–619. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fournier, M. A., Moskowitz, D. S. & Zuroff, D. C. (2002) Social rank strategies in hierarchical relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83:425–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, E., Lester, V., Russo, R., Bowles, R. J., Pichler, A. & Dutton, K. (2000) Facial expressions of emotion: Are angry faces detected more efficiently? Cognition and Emotion 14:61–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fredrickson, B. L. & Joiner, T. (2002) Positive emotions trigger upward spirals toward emotional well-being. Psychological Science 13:172–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fridlund, A. J. (1991) Sociality of solitary smiling: Potentiation by an implicit audience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60:229–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fridlund, A. J., Sabini, J., Hedlund, L. E., Schaut, J. A., Shenker, J. I. & Knauer, M. J. (1990) Audience effects on solitary faces during imagery: Displaying to the people in your head. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 14:113–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frijda, N. H. (1993) Moods, emotion episodes, and emotions. In: Handbook of emotions, ed. Lewis, M. & Haviland, J. M., pp. 381–403. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Fuller, B. F. (2002) Infant gender differences regarding acute established pain. Clinical Nursing Research 11:190–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garber, J. (2000) Development and depression. In: Handbook of developmental psychopathology, 2nd edition, ed. Sameroff, A. J., Lewis, M. & Miller, S. M., pp. 467–90. Kluwer Academic/Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gault, B. A. & Sabini, J. (2000) The roles of empathy, anger, and gender in predicting attitudes toward punitive, reparative, and preventative public policies. Cognition & Emotion 14:495–520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ge, X., Conger, R. D. & Elder, G. H. (2001) Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms. Developmental Psychology 37:404–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ge, X., Kim, I. J., Brody, G. H., Conger, R. D., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X. & Cutrona, C. E. (2003) It's about timing and change: Pubertal transition effects on symptoms of major depression among African American youths. Developmental Psychology 39:430–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geary, D. C. (2002) Sexual selection and human life history. Advances in Child Development and Behavior 30:41–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geary, D. C. (2009) Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences, 2nd editionAmerican Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Geary, D. C., Byrd-Craven, J., Hoard, M. K., Vigil, J. & Numtee, C. (2003) Evolution and development of boys' social behavior. Developmental Review 23:444–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, D. C. & Flinn, M. V. (2001) Evolution of human parental behavior and the human family. Parenting: Science and Practice 1:5–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, D. C. & Flinn, M. V. (2002) Sex differences in behavioral and hormonal response to social threat: Commentary on Taylor et al. (2000). Psychological Review 109:745–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, D. C., Vigil, J. & Byrd-Craven, J. (2004) Evolution of human mate choice. Journal of Sex Research 41:27–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Girdle, S., Turner, J., Sherwood, A. & Light, K. (1990) Gender difference in blood pressure control during a variety of behavioral stressors. Psychosomatic Medicine 52:571–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gold, S. R., Fultz, J., Burke, C. H., Prisco, A. G. & Willet, J. A. (1992) Vicarious emotional responses of macho college males. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 7:165–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldshmidt, O. T. & Weller, L. (2000) “Talking emotions”: Gender differences in a variety of conversational contexts. Symbolic Interaction 23:117–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goos, L. M. & Silverman, I. (2002) Sex related factors in the perception of threatening facial expressions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 26:27–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grammer, K. & Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1990) The ritualisation of laughter. In: Natürlichkeit der Sprache und der Kultur: Acta Colloquii, ed. Koch, W. A., pp. 192–214. Brockmeyer.Google Scholar
Gray, J. R. (2002) Does a prosocial-selfish distinction help explain the biological affects? Comment on Buck (1999). Psychological Review 109:729–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grossman, M. & Wood, W. (1993) Sex differences in intensity of emotional experience: A social role interpretation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65:1010–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guastella, A. J., Mitchell, P. B. & Dadds, M. R. (2008) Oxytocin increases gaze to the eye region of human faces. Biological Psychiatry 63:3–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guinsberg, R., de Araújo Peres, C., Branco de Almeida, M. F., de Cássia Xavier Balda, R., Cássia Berenguel, R., Tonelotto, J., & Kopelman, B. I. (2000) Differences in pain expression between male and female newborn infants. Pain 85:127–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagen, E. H. (2003) The bargaining model of depression. In: Genetic and cultural evolution of cooperation, ed. Hammerstein, P., pp. 95–123. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haidt, J. (2001) The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review 108:814–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, J. A. (1984) Nonverbal sex differences: Communication accuracy and expressive style. Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, J. A. & Matsumoto, D. (2004) Gender differences in judgments of multiple emotions from facial expressions. Emotion 4:201–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) The genetical evolution of social behaviour: II. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:17–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamm, A. O., Schupp, H. T. & Weike, A. I. (2003) Motivational organization of emotions: Autonomic changes, cortical responses, and reflex modulation. In: The handbook of affective science, ed. Davidson, R., Goldsmith, H. H. & Scherer, K., pp. 187–211. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hammer, M. F., Karafet, T. M., Redd, A. J., Jarjanazi, H., Santachiara-Benerecetti, S., Soodyall, H. & Zequra, S. L. (2001) Hierarchical patterns of global human y-chromosome diversity. Molecular Biology and Evolution 18:1189–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartup, W. W. (1996) The company they keep: Friendships and their developmental significance. Child Development 67:1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hepper, P. G., Shannon, E. A. & Dornan, J. C. (1997) Sex differences in fetal mouth movements. The Lancet 350:20–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hojjat, M. (2000) Sex differences and perceptions of conflict in romantic relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 17:598–617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holekamp, K. E. (2006) Questioning the social intelligence hypothesis. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11:65–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holinger, P. C. (1980) Violent deaths as a leading cause of mortality: An epidemiologic study of suicide, homicide, and accidents. American Journal of Psychiatry 137:472–76.Google ScholarPubMed
Horn, S. S. (2003) Adolescents' reasoning about exclusion from social groups. Developmental Psychology 39:71–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hubbard, J. A. (2001) Emotion expression processing in children's peer interaction: The role of peer rejection, aggression, and gender. Child Development 72:1426–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hubbard, J. A., Smithmyer, C. M., Ramsden, S. R., Parker, E. H., Flanagan, K. D., Dearing, K. F., Relyea, N. & Simons, R. F. (2002) Observational, physiological, and self-report measures of children's anger: Relations to reactive versus proactive aggression. Child Development 73:1101–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ireland, J. L. (1999) Bullying behaviors among male and female prisoners: A study of adult and young offenders. Aggressive Behavior 25:161–78.3.0.CO;2-#>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isen, A. M. (2000) Positive affect and decision making. In: Handbook of emotions, 2nd edition ed. Lewis, M. & Haviland-Jones, J. M., pp. 417–35. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Izard, C. E. (1993) Organizational and motivational functions of discrete emotions. In: Handbook of emotions, ed. Lewis, M. & Haviland, J. M., pp. 631–41. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Jackson, Y. & Warren, J. S. (2000) Appraisal, social support, and life events: Predicting outcome behavior in school-age children. Child Development 71:1441–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaffee, S. & Hyde, J. S. (2000) Gender differences in moral orientation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 126:703–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jakobs, E., Manstead, A. S. R. & Fischer, A. H. (1996) Sociality effects on facial displays of sadness: Friends versus strangers. Poster presented at the 11th General Meeting of the European Association for Experimental Social Psychology, Gmunden, Austria, July 1996.Google Scholar
Jakupcak, M., Salters, K., Gratz, K. L. & Roemer, L. (2003) Masculinity and emotionality: An investigation of men's primary and secondary emotional responding. Sex Roles 49:111–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, W. (1884) What is an emotion? Mind 9:188–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, M. B., Peacock, M. P. & Christopher, J. (1992) Self-reported anger in black high school adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health 13:461–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaniasty, K. & Norris, F. H. (1995) Mobilization and deterioration of social support following natural disasters. Current Directions in Psychological Science 4:94–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keller, M. C. & Nesse, R. M. (2005) Is low mood an adaptation? Evidence for subtypes with symptoms that match precipitants. Journal of Affective Disorders 86:27–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keltner, D., Capps, L., Kring, A. M., Young, R. C. & Heerey, E. A. (2001) Just teasing: A conceptual analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin 127:229–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenny, D. A., Mohr, C. D. & Levesque, M. J. (2001) A social relations variance partitioning of dyadic behavior. Psychological Bulletin 127:128–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenrick, D. T., Li, N. L. & Butner, J. (2003) Dynamical evolutionary psychology: Individual decision rules and emergent social norms. Psychological Review 110:3–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khan, A. A., Gardner, C. O., Prescott, C. A. & Kendler, K. S. (2002) Gender differences in the symptoms of major depression in opposite-sex dizygotic twin pairs. American Journal of Psychiatry 159:1427–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. & Newton, T. L. (2001) Marriage and health: His and hers. Psychological Bulletin 127:472–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, U., Triandis, H. C., Kagitcibasi, C., Choi, S.-C. & Yoon, G. (1994) Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications. Sage.Google Scholar
Kivlighan, K. T., Granger, D. A. & Booth, A. (2005) Gender differences in testosterone and cortisol response to competition. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30:58–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kling, K. C., Hyde, J. S., Showers, C. J. & Buswell, B. N. (1999) Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 125:470–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knauft, B. M. (1991) Violence and sociality in human evolution. Current Anthropology 32:391–428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kneidinger, L. M., Maple, T. L. & Tross, S. A. (2001) Touching behavior in sport: Functional components, analysis of sex differences, and ethological considerations. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 25:43–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knight, G. P., Guthrie, I. K., Page, M. C. & Fabes, R. A. (2002) Emotional arousal and gender differences in aggression: A meta-analysis. Aggressive Behavior 28:366–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kovalenko, P. A., Hoven, C. W., Wicks, J., Moore, R. E., Mandell, D. J. & Liu, H. (2000) Seasonal variations in internalizing, externalizing, and substance use disorders in youth. Psychiatry Research 94:103–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kraut, R. E. & Johnston, R. E. (1979) Social and emotional messages of smiling: An ethological approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37:1539–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kring, A. M. & Gordon, A. H. (1998) Sex differences in emotion: Expression, experience, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74:686–703.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kunz-Ebrecht, S. R., Mohamed-Ali, V., Feldman, P. J., Kirschbaum, C. & Steptoe, A. (2003) Cortisol responses to mild psychological stress are inversely associated with proinflammatory cytokines. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 17:373–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurzban, R. (2001) The social psychophysics of cooperation: Nonverbal communication in a public goods game. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 25:241–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurzban, R. & Leary, M. R. (2001) Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: The function of social exclusion. Psychological Bulletin 127:187–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LaFrance, M. & Hecht, M. A. (2000) Gender and smiling: A meta-analysis of sex differences in smiling. In: Gender and emotion: Social Psychological Perspectives, ed. Fischer, A. H., pp. 118–42. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LaFrance, M., Hecht, M. A. & Paluck, B. L. (2003) The contingent smile: A meta-analysis of sex differences in smiling. Psychological Bulletin 129( 2):305–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lagattuta, K. H. & Wellman, H. M. (2002) Differences in early parent-child conversations about negative versus positive emotions: Implications for the development of psychological understanding. Developmental Psychology 38:564–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lakin, J. L. & Chartrand, T. L. (2003) Using nonconscious behavioral mimicry to create affiliation and rapport. Psychological Science 14:334–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larkin, K. T., Martin, R. R. & McClain, S. E. (2002) Cynical hostility and the accuracy of decoding facial expressions of emotions. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 25:285–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarsfeld, P. & Merton, R. K. (1954) Friendship as a social process: A substantive and methodological analysis. In: Freedom and control in modern society, ed. Berger, M., Abel, T. & Page, C. H., pp. 18–66. Van Nostrand.Google Scholar
Lazarus, R. S. (1991) Emotion and adaptation. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leaper, C. & Smith, T. E. (2004) A meta-analytic review of gender variations in children's language use: Talkativeness, affiliative speech, and assertive speech. Developmental Psychology 40:993–1027.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leaper, C., Tenenbaum, H. R. & Shaffer, T. G. (1999) Communication patterns of African American girls and boys from low-income, urban backgrounds. Child Development 70:1489–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leary, T. (1957) Interpersonal diagnosis of personality. Ronald.Google Scholar
LeDoux, J. E. (1996) The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Lee, V. & Wagner, H. (2002). The effect of social presence on the facial and verbal expression of emotion and the interrelationships among emotion components. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 26:3–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leman, P. J., Ahmed, S. & Ozarow, L. (2005) Gender, gender relations, and the social dynamics of children's conversations. Developmental Psychology 41:64–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lever, J. (1978) Sex differences in the games children play. American Sociological Review 43:471–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, D. P. (2005) Hegemonic complicity, friendship, and comradeship validation and causal processes among white, middle-class, middle-aged men. Journal of Men's Studies 13:199–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, M. & Ramsay, D. (2002) Cortisol response to embarrassment and shame. Child Development 73:1034–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, N. P., Bailey, J. M., Kenrick, D. T. & Linsenmeier, J. A. (2002) The necessities and luxuries of mate preferences: Testing the trade-offs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82:947–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lobel, T. E., Gruber, R., Govrin, N. & Mashraki-Pedhatzur, S. (2001) Children's gender-related inferences and judgments: A cross-cultural study. Developmental Psychology 37:839–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lombardo, W. K., Cretser, G. A. & Roesch, S. C. (2001) For crying out loud: The differences persist in the ’90s. Sex Roles 45:529–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maccoby, E. E. (2002) Gender and group processes: A developmental perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science 11:55–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, L., Radford, M., Burnett, P., Ford, S., Bond, M., Leung, K., Nakamura, H., Vaughan, G. & Yang, K. (1998) Cross-cultural differences in self-reported decision-making style and confidence. International Journal of Psychology 33:325–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marlowe, F. W. (2004) Marital residence among foragers. Current Anthropology 45:277–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsh, A. A., Adams, R. B. & Kleck, R. E. (2005) Why do fear and anger look the way they do? Form and social function in facial expressions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31:73–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marsh, A. A., Elfenbein, H. A. & Ambady, N. (2003) Nonverbal “accents”: Cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. Psychological Science 14:373–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, R. B. (1998) The effect of voluntary eye movements on associations and mood. Journal of Clinical Psychology 54:545–53.3.0.CO;2-F>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marttunen, M., Henriksson, M. M., Hillevi, M. A., Heikkinen, M. E., Isometsa, E. T. & Lonnqvist, J. K. (1995) Suicide among female adolescents: Characteristics and comparison with males in the age group 13–22. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34:1297–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mast, M. S. & Hall, J. A. (2004) Who is the boss and who is not? Accuracy of judging status. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 28:145–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matsumoto, D. (1993) Ethnic differences in affect intensity, emotion judgments, display rule attitudes, and self-reported emotional expression in an American sample. Motivation and Emotion 17:107–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matsumoto, D. & Ekman, P. (1989) American-Japanese cultural differences in intensity ratings of facial expressions of emotion. Motivation and Emotion 13:143–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matthews, G. & Deary, I. J. (1998) Personality traits. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mazur, A. (1985) A biosocial model of status in face-to-face primate groups. Social Forces 64:377–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCart, M. R., Davies, H., Harris, R., Wincek, J., Calhoun, A. D. & Melzer-Lange, M. D. (2005) Assessment of trauma symptoms among adolescent assault victims. Journal of Adolescent Health |v36:70.e7–13.Google ScholarPubMed
McClure, E. B. (2000) A meta-analytic review of sex differences in facial expression processing and their development in infants, children, and adolescents. Psychological Bulletin 126( 3):424–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClure, E. B., Monk, C. S., Nelson, E. E., Zarahn, E., Leibenluft, E., Bilder, R. M., Charney, D. S., Ernst, M. & Pine, D. S. (2004) A developmental examination of gender differences in brain engagement during evaluation of threat. Biological Psychiatry 55:1047–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCullough, M. E., Rachal, K. C., Sandage, S. J., Worthington, E. L., Brown, S. W. & Hight, T. L. (1998) Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships: II. Theoretical elaboration and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75:1586–603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McElwain, N. L. & Volling, B. L. (2002) Relating individual control, social understanding, and gender to child-friend interaction: A relationships perspective. Social Development 11:362–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEwen, B. S. & Seeman, T. (1999) Protective and damaging effects of mediators of stress: Elaborating and testing the concepts of allostasis and allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 896:30–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGuire, T. R. (1993) Emotion and behavior genetics in vertebrates and invertebrates. In: Handbook of emotions, ed. Lewis, M. & Haviland, J. M., pp. 155–66. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Hilt, L. M. & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2007) Racial/ethnic differences in internalizing and externalizing symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 35:801–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mignault, A. & Chaudhuri, A. (2003) The many faces of a neutral face: Head tilt and perception of dominance and emotion. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 27:111–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, J. L., Macedonia, C. & Sonies, B. C. (2006) Sex differences in prenatal oral-motor function and development. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 48:465–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, R. S. (2004) Emotion as adaptive interpersonal communication: The case of embarrassment. In: The social life of emotions, ed. Tiedens, L. Z. & Leach, C. W., pp. 87–104. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mogg, K. & Bradley, B. P. (1999) Orienting of attention to threatening facial expressions presented under conditions of restricted awareness. Cognition and Emotion 13:713–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montepare, J. M. & Dobish, H. (2003) The contribution of emotion perceptions and their overgeneralizations to trait impressions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 27:237–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moors, A. & De Houwer, J., (2005) Automatic processing of dominance and submissiveness. Experimental Psychology 52:296–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morton, J. B. & Trehub, S. E. (2001) Children's understanding of emotion in speech. Child Development 3:834–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mroczek, D. K. & Kolarz, C. M. (1998) The effect of age on positive and negative affect: A developmental perspective on happiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75:1333–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murdock, G. P. (1981) Atlas of world cultures. University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Murphy, F. C., Nimmo-Smith, I. & Lawrence, A. D. (2003) Functional neuroanatomy of emotions: A meta-analysis. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience 3:207–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myers, C. D., Riley, J. L. & Robinson, M. E. (2003) Psychosocial contributions to sex-correlated differences in pain. The Clinical Journal of Pain 19:225–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nail, P. R., MacDonald, G. & Levy, D. A. (2000) Proposal of a four-dimension model of social response. Psychological Bulletin 126:454–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neff, L. A. & Karney, B. R. (2005) Gender differences in social support: A question of skill or responsiveness? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88:79–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nesse, R. M. (1990) Evolutionary explanations of emotions. Human Nature 1:261–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nesse, R. M. (2005) Natural selection and the regulation of defense: A signal detection analysis of the smoke detector principle. Evolution and Human Behavior 26:88–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newcomb, M. D. (1990) Social support and personal characteristics: A developmental and interactional perspective. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 9:54–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newcomb, M. D. & Chou, C. (1989) Social support among young adults: Latent-variable models of quantity and satisfaction within six life areas. Multivariate Behavioral Research 24:233–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nishina, A. & Juvonen, J. (2005) Daily reports of witnessing and experiencing peer harassment in middle school. Child Development 76:435–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ohbuchi, K. I., Fukushima, O. & Tedeschi, J. T. (1999) Cultural values in conflict management: Goal orientation, goal attainment, and tactical decision. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 30:51–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Öhman, A. (2002) Automaticity and the amygdala: Nonconscious responses to emotional faces. Current Directions in Psychological Science 11:62–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Öhman, A., Flykt, A. & Esteves, F. (2001) Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 130:466–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Öhman, A. & Wiens, S. (2003) On the automaticity of autonomic responses in emotion: An evolutionary perspective. In: Handbook of affective sciences, ed. Davidson, R. J., Scherer, K. & Goldsmith, H. H., pp. 256–75. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Okawa, M., Shirakawa, S., Uchiyama, M., Oguri, M., Kohsaka, M., Mishima, K., Sakamoto, K., Inoue, H., Kamei, K. & Takahashi, K. (1996) Seasonal variation of mood and behaviour in a healthy middle-aged population in Japan. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 94:211–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ortony, A. & Turner, T. J. (1990) What's basic about basic emotions? Psychological Review 97:315–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M. & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002) Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin 128:3–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Panksepp, J. (2000) Emotions as natural kinds within the mammalian brain. In: Handbook of emotions, 2nd edition, ed. Lewis, M. & Haviland-Jones, J. M., pp. 137–56. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Panksepp, J. (2003) Can anthropomorphic analyses of separation cries in other animals inform us about the emotional nature of social loss in humans? Comment on Blumberg and Sokoloff (2001). Psychological Review 110:376–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parslow, R. A., Jorm, A. F. & Christensen, H. (2006) Associations of pre-trauma attributes and trauma exposure with screening positive for PTSD: Analysis of a community-based study of 2,085 young adults. Psychological Medicine 36:387–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pasternak, B., Ember, M. & Ember, C. R. (1997) Sex, gender, and kinship: A cross-cultural perspective. Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Patterson, M. L. (2003) Evolution and nonverbal behavior: Functions and mediating processes. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 27:201–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, M. L., Foster, J. L. & Bellmer, C. D. (2001) Another look at accuracy and confidence in social judgments. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 25:207–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinquart, M. & Sörensen, S. (2006) Gender differences in caregiver stressors, social resources, and health. Journal of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 61:33–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollak, S. D. & Sinha, P. (2002) Effects of early experience on children's recognition of facial displays of emotion. Developmental Psychology 38:784–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Probst, J. C., Laditka, S. B., Moore, C. G., Harun, N., Powell, M. P. & Baxley, E. G. (2006) Rural-urban differences in depression prevalence: Implications for family medicine. Family Medicine 38:653–60.Google ScholarPubMed
Provine, R. R. (1993) Laughter punctuates speech: Linguistic, social, and gender contexts of laughter. Ethology 95:291–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Provine, R. R. (2004) Laughing, tickling, and the evolution of speech and self. Current Directions in Psychological Science 13:215–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puts, D. A., Hodges, C. R., Cárdenas, R. A. & Gaulin, S. J. C. (2007) Men's voices as dominance signals: Vocal fundamental and formant frequencies influence dominance attributions among men. Evolution and Human Behavior 28:340–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramírez-Maestre, C., Martinez, A. E. L. & Zarazaga, R. E. (2004) Personality characteristics as differential variables of the pain perception. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 27:147–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramsey, J. L., Langlois, J. H. & Marti, N. C. (2005) Infant categorization of faces: Ladies first. Developmental Review 25:212–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rehdanz, K. & Maddison, D. (2005) Climate and happiness. Ecological Economics 52:111–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodkin, P. C., Farmer, T. W., Pearl, R. & Van Acker, R., (2000) Heterogeneity of popular boys: Antisocial and prosocial configurations. Developmental Psychology 36:14–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rose, A. J. (2002) Co-rumination in the friendships of girls and boys. Child Development 73:1830–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rose, A. J. & Asher, S. R. (2004) Children's strategies and goals in response to help-giving and help-seeking tasks within a friendship. Child Development 75:749–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rose, A. J. & Rudolph, K. D. (2006) A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin 132:98–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosip, J. C. & Hall, J. A. (2004) Knowledge of nonverbal cues, gender, and nonverbal decoding accuracy. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 28:267–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roth-Isigkeit, A., Thyen, U., Stöven, H., Schwarzenberger, J. & Schmucker, P. (2005) Pain among children and adolescents: Restrictions in daily living and triggering factors. Pediatrics 115:e152–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rottenberg, J., Gross, J. J., Wilhelm, F. H., Najmi, S. & Gotlib, I. H. (2002) Crying threshold and intensity in major depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 111:302–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rotton, J. & Dubitsky, S. S. (2002) Immune function and affective states following a natural disaster. Psychological Reports 90:521–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudman, L. A. (2004) Sources of implicit attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science 13:79–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rudolph, K. D., Caldwell, M. S. & Conley, C. S. (2005) Need for approval and children's well-being. Child Development 76:309–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, U., Roesch, S. C., Greitemeyer, T. & Weiner, B. (2004) A meta-analytic review of help giving and aggression from an attributional perspective: Contributions to a general theory of motivation. Cognition and Emotion 18:815–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russac, R. J., Gatliff, C. R. M. & Spottswood, D. (2007) Death anxiety across the adult years: An examination of age and gender effects. Death Studies 31:549–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., Caspi, A. & Moffitt, T. E. (2003) Using sex differences in psychopathology to study causal mechanisms: Unifying issues and research strategies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 44:1092–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sabini, J., Siepmenn, M. & Stein, J. (2001) The really fundamental attribution error in social psychological research. Psychological Inquiry 12:1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salokangas, R. K. R., Vaahtera, K., Pacriev, S., Sohlman, B. & Lehtinen, V. (2002) Gender differences in depressive symptoms: An artifact caused by measurement instruments? Journal of Affective Disorders 68:215–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salvador, A. (2005) Coping with competitive situations in humans. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 29:195–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sapolsky, R. M. (1994) Why zebras don't get ulcers. W. H. Freeman.Google Scholar
Sapolsky, R. M. (2004) Social status and health in humans and other animals. Annual Review of Anthropology 33:393–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheib, J. E., Gangestad, S. W. & Thornhill, R. (1999) Facial attractiveness, symmetry and cues of good genes. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B: Biological Sciences 22:1913–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scherer, K. R., Johnstone, T. & Klasmeyer, G. (2003) Vocal expression of emotion. In: Handbook of the affective sciences, ed. Davidson, R. J., Scherer, K. R. & Goldsmith, H., pp. 433–56. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schimmack, U. (1996) Cultural influences on the recognition of emotion by facial expressions: Individualistic or Caucasian cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 27:37–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, D. J. (1973) Implicit personality theory: A review. Psychological Bulletin 79:294–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seals, D. & Young, J. (2003) Bullying and victimization: Prevalence and relationship to gender, grade level, ethnicity, self-esteem, and depression. Adolescence 38:735–47.Google ScholarPubMed
Segerstrom, S. C. & Miller, G. E. (2004) Psychological stress and the human immune system: A meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychological Bulletin 130:601–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seielstad, M., Minch, E. & Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (1998) Genetic evidence for a higher female migration rate in humans. Nature Genetics 20:278–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seielstad, M. T. (2000) Asymmetries in the maternal and paternal genetic histories of Colombian populations. American Journal of Human Genetics 67:1062–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Semino, O., Passarino, G., Oefner, P. J., Lin, A. A., Arbuzova, S., Beckman, L. E., De Benedictis, G., Francalacci, P., Kouvatsi, A., Limborska, S., Marcikiae, M., Mika, A., Mika, B., Primorac, D., Santachiara-Benerecetti, A. S., Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., & Underhill, P. A. (2000) The genetic legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans: A Y chromosome perspective. Science 290:1155–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shackelford, T. K., Buss, D. M. & Bennett, K. (2002) Forgiveness or breakup: Sex differences in responses to a partner's infidelity. Cognition and Emotion 16:299–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shipman, K. L., Zeman, J., Nesin, A. E. & Fitzgerald, M. (2003) Children's strategies for displaying anger and sadness: What works with whom? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 49:100–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sidanius, J., Levin, S., Liu, J. & Pratto, F. (2000) Social dominance orientation, anti-egalitarianism and the political psychology of gender: An extension and cross-cultural replication. European Journal of Social Psychology 20:41–67.3.0.CO;2-O>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sidanius, J., Pratto, F. & Bobo, L. (1994) Social dominance orientation and the political psychology of gender. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67:998–1011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simpson, J. A. & Gangestad, S. W. (1991) Individual differences in sociosexuality: Evidence for convergent and discriminate validity. Personality and Social Psychology 60:870–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sloman, L. & Gilbert, P. (2000) Subordination and defeat. An evolutionary approach to mood disorders. Erlbaum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snowdon, C. T. (2003) Expression of emotion in non-human animals. In: Handbook of affective sciences, ed. Davidson, R. J., Scherer, K. R. & Goldsmith, H. H., pp. 457–80. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Snyder, M., Simpson, J. A. & Gangestad, S. (1986) Personality and sexual relations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51:181–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solomon, Z., Gelkopf, M. & Bleich, A. (2005) Is terror gender-blind? Gender differences in reaction to terror events. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 40:947–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sourander, A., Santalahti, P., Haavisto, A., Piha, J., Ikäheimo, K. & Helenius, H. (2004) Have there been changes in children's psychiatric symptoms and mental health service use? A 10-year comparison from Finland. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 43:1134–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Southwick, S. M., Vythilingam, M. & Charney, D. S. (2005) The psychobiology of depression and resilience to stress: Implications for prevention and treatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 1:255–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sprecher, S. (2001) A comparison of emotional consequences of and changes in equity over time using global and domain-specific measures of equity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 18:477–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stapley, J. C. & Haviland, J. M. (1989) Beyond depression: Gender differences in normal adolescents’ emotional experiences. Sex Roles 20:295–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternglanz, R. W. & DePaulo, B. M. (2004) Reading nonverbal cues to emotions: The advantages and liabilities of relationship closeness. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 28:245–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stetsenko, A., Little, T. D., Gordeeva, T., Grasshof, M. & Oettingen, G. (2000) Gender effects in children's beliefs about school performance: A cross-cultural study. Child Development 71:517–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strayer, J. & Roberts, W. (2004) Empathy and observed anger and aggression in five-year-olds. Social Development 13:1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroud, L. R., Salovey, P. & Epel, E. S. (2002) Sex differences in stress responses: Social rejection versus achievement stress. Biological Psychiatry 52:318–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sutter, A. L., Leroy, V., Dallay, D., Verdoux, H. & Bourgeois, M. (1997) Post-partum blues and mild depressive symptomatology at days three and five after delivery. Journal of Affective Disorders 44:1–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sy, S. R., DeMeis, D. K. & Scheinfield, R. E. (2003) Pre-school children's understanding of the emotional consequences for failures to act prosocially. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 21:259–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, S. E., Cousino, L., Lewis, B. P., Gruenwald, T. L., Gurung, R. A. R. & Updegraff, T. L. (2000) Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review 107:411–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terwogt, M. M. (2002) Emotional states in self and others as motives for helping in 10-year-old children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 20:131–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thoma, S. J. (1986) Estimating gender differences in the comprehension and preference of moral issues. Developmental Review 6:165–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thunberg, M. & Dimberg, U. (2000) Gender differences in facial reactions to fear-relevant stimuli. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 24:45–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tiedens, L. Z. & Fragale, A. R. (2003) Power moves: Complementarity in dominant and submissive nonverbal behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84:558–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timmers, M., Fischer, A. H. & Manstead, A. S. R. (1998) Gender differences in motives for regulating emotions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 24:974–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Todorov, A. (2008) Evaluating faces on trustworthiness: An extension of systems for recognition of emotions signaling approach/avoidance behaviors. Annuals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1124:208–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Todorov, A., Mandisodza, A. N., Goren, A. & Hall, C. C. (2005) Inferences of competence from faces predict election outcomes. Science 308:1623–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tolin, D. F. & Foa, E. B. (2006) Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research. Psychological Bulletin 132:959–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tracy, J. L. & Robins, R. W. (2007) The psychological structure of pride: A tale of two facets. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92:506–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1971) The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46:35–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tronick, E. Z. (1989) Emotions and emotional communication in infants. American Psychologist 44:112–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Twenge, J. M. & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2002) Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort differences on the Children's Depression Inventory: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 111:578–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uchino, B. N., Cacioppo, J. T. & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (1996) The relationship between social support and physiological processes: A review with emphasis on underlying mechanisms and implications for health. Psychological Bulletin 119:488–531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uhart, M., Chong, R. Y., Oswald, L., Lin, P. & Wand, G. S. (2006) Gender differences in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31:642–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Underwood, M. K., Schockner, A. E. & Hurley, J. C. (2001) Children's responses to same- and other-gender peers: An experimental investigation with 8-, 10-, and 12-year-olds. Developmental Psychology 37:362–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Updegraff, K. A., McHale, S. M. & Crouter, A. C. (2000) Adolescent's sex-typed friendship experiences: Does having a sister versus a brother matter? Child Development 71:1597–610.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Baaren, R. B., Holland, R. W., Kawakami, K. & van Knippenberg, A., (2004) Mimicry and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science 15:71–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Tilburg, M. A. L., Unterberg, M. L. & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (2002) Crying during adolescence: The role of gender, menarche, and empathy. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 20:77–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vigil, J. M. (2007) Asymmetries in the friendship preferences and social styles of men and women. Human Nature 18:143–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vigil, J. M. (2008) Sex differences in affect behaviors, desired social responses, and accuracy at understanding the social desires of other people. Evolutionary Psychology 6:506–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vigil, J. M., Brophy, S., Garrett, E. & McMurry, S. (submitted) Protracted facial processing biases and psychological correlates of victimization reports in healthy adults.Google Scholar
Vigil, J. M. & Geary, D. C. (2007) A preliminary investigation of family coping styles and psychological well-being among adolescent survivors of Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Family Psychology 22:176–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vigil, J. M., Geary, D. C. & Byrd-Craven, J. (2006) Trade-offs in low-income women's mate preferences: Within-sex differences in reproductive strategy. Human Nature 17:319–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vigil, J. M., Geary, D. C., Granger, D. A. & Flinn, M. V. (in press) Sex differences in salivary cortisol, alpha-amylase, and psychological functioning following Hurricane Katrina. Child Development.Google Scholar
Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M., Cornelius, R. R., Van Heck, G. L., & Becht, M. C. (2000) Adult crying: A model and review of the literature. Review of General Psychology 4:354–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. & Scheirs, J. G. M. (2000) Sex differences in crying: Empirical findings and possible explanations. In: Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives. Studies in emotion and social interaction, vol. 2, ed. Fischer, A. H., pp. 143–65. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. & Van Heck, G. L. (1990) Gender, coping and psychosomatic symptoms. Psychological Medicine 20:125–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, J. D., Flinn, M. V. & England, B. G. (2002) Hormonal response to competition among male coalitions. Evolution and Human Behavior 23:437–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wainwright, N. W. J. & Surtees, P. G. (2004) Area and individual circumstances and mood disorder prevalence. British Journal of Psychiatry 185:227–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walters, K., Breeze, E., Wilkinson, P., Price, G. M., Bulpitt, C. J. & Fletcher, A. (2004) Local area deprivation and urban–rural differences in anxiety and depression among people older than 75 years in Britain. American Journal of Public Health 94:1768–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warden, D. & MacKinnon, S. (2003) Prosocial children, bullies and victims: An investigation of their sociometric status, empathy and social problem-solving strategies. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 21:367–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, A. M., Lipp, O. V. & Spence, S. H. (2005) The effects of affective picture stimuli on blink modulation in adults and children. Biological Psychology 68:257–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Webbink, P. (1986) The power of the eyes. Springer.Google Scholar
Weich, S., Holt, G., Twigg, L., Jones, K. & Lewis, G. (2003) Geographic variation in the prevalence of common mental disorders in Britain: A multilevel investigation. American Journal of Epidemiology 157:730–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, A., Bates, T. C. & Luciano, M. (2008) The genetics of personality and well-being in a representative sample. Psychological Science 19:205–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wells, B., Peppé, S. & Goulandris, N. (2004) Intonation development from five to thirteen. Journal of Child Language 31:749–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wells, R. S., Yuldasheva, N., Ruzibakiev, R., Underhill, P. A., Evseeva, I., Blue-Smith, J., Jin, L., Su, B., Pitchappan, R., Shanmugalakshmi, S., Balakrishnan, K., Read, M., Pearson, N. M., Zerjal, T., Webster, M. T., Zholoshvili, I., Jamarjashvili, E., Gambarov, S., Nikbin, B., Dostiev, A., Aknazarov, O., Zalloua, P., Tsoy, I., Kitaev, M., Mirrakhimov, M., Chariev, A. & Bodmer, W. F. (2001) The Eurasian heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 98:10244–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
West, S. A., Pen, I. & Griffin, A. S. (2002) Cooperation and competition between relatives. Science 296:72–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wester, S. R., Vogel, D. L., Pressly, P. K. & Heesacker, M. (2002) Sex differences in emotion: A critical review of the literature and implications for counseling psychology. Counseling Psychologist 30:630–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widen, S. C. & Russell, J. A. (2002) Gender and preschoolers' perception of emotion. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 48:248–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, D. G. (1982) Weeping by adults: Personality correlates and sex differences. Journal of Psychology 110:217–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, D. G. & Morris, G. H. (1996) Crying, weeping or tearfulness in British and Israeli adults. British Journal of Psychology 87:479–505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, G. C. (1957) Pleiotropy, natural selection, and the evolution of senescence. Evolution 11:398–411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willis, F. N. & Hamm, H. K. (1980) The use of interpersonal touch in securing compliance. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 5:49–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willis, J. & Todorov, A. (2006) First impressions: Making up your mind after 100 ms exposure to a face. Psychological Science 17:592–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, J. F., Weiss, D. A., Richards, M., Thomas, M. G., Bradman, N. & Goldstein, D. B. (2001) Genetic evidence for different male and female roles during cultural transitions in the British Isles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 98:5078–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winston, J. S., Strange, B. A., O'Doherty, J. & Dolan, R. J. (2002) Automatic and intentional brain response during evaluation of trustworthiness of faces. Nature 5:277–83.Google ScholarPubMed
Wood, W. (1987) Meta-analytic review of sex differences in group performance. Psychological Bulletin 102:53–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, W. & Eagly, A. H. (2002) A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychological Bulletin 128:699–727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wrangham, R. & Peterson, D. (1996) Demonic males: Apes and the origins of human violence. Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Xu, Y. & Zhang, Z. (2007) Distinguishing proactive and reactive aggression in Chinese children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 36:539–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yale, M. E., Messinger, D. S., Cobo-Lewis, A. B. & Delgado, C. F. (2003) The temporal coordination of early infant communication. Developmental Psychology 39:815–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zaalberg, R., Manstead, A. S. R. & Fischer, A. H. (2004) Relations between emotions, display rules, social motives, and facial behaviour. Cognition and Emotion 18:183–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zak, P. J., Kurzban, R. & Matzner, M. T. (2004) The neurobiology of trust. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1032:224–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zald, D. H. (2003) The human amygdala and the emotional evaluation of sensory stimuli. Brain Research Reviews 41:88–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeifman, D. M. (2001) An ethnological analysis of human infant crying: Answering Tinbergen's four questions. Psychobiology 39:265–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmermann, L. K. & Stansbury, K. (2003) The influence of temperamental reactivity and situational context on the emotion-regulatory abilities of 3-year-old children. Journal of Genetic Psychology 164:389–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zuckerman, M., Tushup, R. & Finner, S. (1976) Sexual attitudes and experience: Attitude and personality correlates and changes produced by a course in sexuality. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 44:7–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zuroff, D. C., Fournier, M. A. & Moskowitz, D. S. (2007) Depression, perceived inferiority, and interpersonal behavior: Evidence for the involuntary defeat strategy. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 26:751–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar