Hostname: page-component-5b777bbd6c-w9n4q Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-06-20T22:11:37.934Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Précis of How monkeys see the world

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 May 2011

Dorothy L. Cheney  and
Robert M. Seyfarth
Dorothy L. Cheney
Affiliation:
Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6018, Electronic mail: cheney@cattell.psych.upenn.edu
Robert M. Seyfarth
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6018, Electronic mail: seyfarth@cattell.psych.upenn.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Our book examines the mechanisms that underlie social behavior and communication in East African vervet monkeys. Our goal is to describe the sophistication of primate intelligence and to probe its limits. We suggest that vervets and other primates make good primatologists. They observe social interactions, recognize the relations that exist among others, and classify relationships into types. Monkeys also use sounds to represent features of their environment and compare different vocalizations according to their meaning. Monkeys may use abstract concepts and have motives, beliefs, and desires, however, their mental states are apparently not accessible: They do not know what they know. In addition, monkeys seem unable to attribute mental states to others: They lack a “theory of mind.” Their inability to. examine their own mental states or to attribute mental states to others severely constrains their ability to transmit information or to deceive one another. It also limits the extent to which their vocalizations can be called semantic. Finally, the skills that monkeys exhibit in social behavior are apparently domain specific. For reasons that are at present unclear, vervets exhibit adaptive specializations in social interactions that are not extended to their interactions with other species (although they should be).

Keywords

cognitioncommunicationconsciousnessdeceptionintelligencelanguagemental statesmonkeyssocial behaviorsocial judgment
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 15 , Issue 1 , March 1992 , pp. 135 - 147
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1992

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abegglen, J. J. (1984) On socialization in hamadryas baboons. Associated University Presses. [rDLC]Google Scholar
Allen, C. (1989) Philosophical issues in cognitive ethology. Ph.D. dissertation. University of California, Los Angeles. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Altmann, S. A. (1967) The structure of primate social communication. In: Social communication among primates, ed. Altmann, S. A.. University of Chicago Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Attwood, A., Frith, U. & Hermelin, B. (1988) The understanding and use of interpersonal gestures by autistic and Down's syndrome children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 18:241–57. [FH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Austin, J. (1962) How to do things with words. Basil Blackwell. [SB-C]Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. (1986) Working memory. Oxford University Press. [WHD]Google ScholarPubMed
Balda, R. P. & Kamil, A. C. (1988) The spatial memory of Clark's nutcrackers (Nucifraga columbiana) in an analogue of the radial arm maze. Animal Learning and Behavior 16:116–22. [rDLC]Google Scholar
Balda, R. P., Bunch, K. G., Kamil, A. C., Sherry, D. F. & Tomback, D. F. (1987) Cache site memory in birds. In: Foraging behavior, ed. Kamil, A. C., Krebs, J. R. & Pulliam, H. R.. Plenum Press. [rDLC]Google Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S. (1989a) Joint attention deficits in autism: Towards a cognitive analysis. Development and Psychopathology 1:185–89. [SB-C]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S. (1989b) Perceptual role taking and protodeclarative pointing in autism. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 7:113–27. [FH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S. (1991a) Do people with autism understand what causes emotion? Child Development 62:385–95. [FH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron-Cohen, S. (1991b) Precursors to a theory of mind: Understanding attention in others. In: Natural theories of mind, ed. Whiten, A.. Basil Blackwell. [SB-C]Google Scholar
Bartsch, K. & Wellman, H. (1989) Young children's attribution of action to beliefs and desires. Child Development 60:946–64. [DJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bates, E., Camaioni, L. & Volterra, V. (1975) The acquisition of performatives prior to speech. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 21: 205–26. [SB-C]Google Scholar
Boesch, C. (1991) Teaching in wild chimpanzees. Animal Behavior 41:530–32. [rDLC, CB, EV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boesch, C. (in press a) Transmission aspects of tool use in wild chimpanzees. In: Tools, language and intelligence: Evolutionary implications, ed. K. Gibson & T. Ingold. Cambridge University Press. [CB]Google Scholar
Boesch, C. (in press b) The effect of leopard predation on grouping patterns in forest chimpanzees. Behaviour. [CB]Google Scholar
Boesch, C. & Boesch, H. (1984) Mental maps in wild chimpanzees: An analysis of hammer transports for nut cracking. Primates 25:160–70. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boice, R. (1977) Surplusage. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 9:452–54. [DAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bower, T. G. R. (1989) The rational infant. Learning in infancy. Freeman. [EV]Google Scholar
Bretherton, I. & Beeghly, M. (1982) Talking about internal states: The acquisition of an explicit theory of mind. Developmental Psychology 18:906–21. [DJP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bretherton, I., McNew, S. & Beeghly-Smith, M. (1981) Early person knowledge as expressed in gestural and verbal communication: When do infants acquire a “theory of mind”? In: Infant social cognition, ed. Lamb, M. E. & Sherrod, L. R.. Erlbaum. [DJP]Google Scholar
Burghardt, G. M. (1978) Closing the circle: The ethology of mind. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1:562–63. [GMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burghardt, G. M. (1985) Animal awareness: Current perceptions and historical perspective. American Psychologist 40:905–19. [GMB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burghardt, G. M. (1991) Cognitive ethology and critical anthropomorphism: A snake with two heads and hognose snakes that play dead. In: Cognitive ethology: The minds of other animals, ed. Ristau, C. A.. Erlbaum. [GMB]Google Scholar
Butterworth, G. (in press) Origins of self-perception in infancy. Psychological Inquiry. [DJP]Google Scholar
Byrne, R. W. & Whiten, A. (1988) Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and humans. Clarendon Press. [BMFG]Google Scholar
Chandler, M. J., Fritz, A. S. & Hala, S. (1989) Small-scale deceit: Deception as a marker of two-, three-, and four-year-olds' early theories of mind. Child Development 60:1263–77. [DJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheney, D. L. (1983) Extra-familial alliances among vervet monkeys. In: Primate social relationships, ed. Hinde, R. A.. Basil Blackwell. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Cheney, D. L. & Seyfarth, R. M. (1990) How monkeys see the world: Inside the mind of another species. University of Chicago Press. [HGF, PAG, DJP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Churchland, P. (1984) Matter and consciousness. MIT Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Cohen, N. J. & Squire, L. R. (1980) Preserved learning and retention pattern-analyzing skill in amnesia: Dissociation of knowing how and knowing that. Science 210:207–10. [RMR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colvin, J. (1983) Description of sibling and peer relationships among immature male rhesus monkeys. In: Primate social relationships, ed. Hinde, R. A.. Basil Blackwell. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Cords, M. (1988) Resolution of aggressive conflicts by immature long-tail macaques, M. fascicularis. Animal Behaviour 36:1124–36. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cosmides, L. (1989) The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped how humans reason? Studies with the Wason selection task. Cognition 31:181–276. [LAD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J. (1989) Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture. II. Case study: A computational theory of social exchange. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:51–97. [LAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coss, R. G. & Owings, D. H. (1985) Restraints on ground squirrel antipredator behavior: Adjustments over multiple time scales. In: Issues in the ecological study of learning, ed. Johnston, T. D. & Pietrewicz, A. T.. Erlbaum. [DHO]Google Scholar
Dasser, V. (1985) Cognitive complexity in primate social relationships. In: Social relationships and cognitive development, ed. Hinde, R. A., Perret-Clermont, A. & Stevenson-Hinde, J.. Oxford University Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Dasser, V. (1988) A social concept in Java monkeys. Animal Behaviour 36:255–30. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, D. (1975) Thought and talk. In: Mind and language, ed. Guttenplan, S.. Oxford University Press. [CA]Google Scholar
Davidson, I. & Noble, W. (1989) The archaeology of perception: Traces of depiction and language. Current Anthropology 30:125–55. [WN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, R. T., Leary, R. W., Stevens, D. A. & Thompson, R. F. (1967) Learning and perception of oddity problems by lemurs and seven species of monkey. Primates 8:311–22. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1986) The blind watchmaker. W. W. Norton. [aDLC]Google Scholar
DeLoache, J. S. (1987) Rapid change in the symbolic functioning of very young children. Science 238:1556–57. [FH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennett, D. C. (1971) Intentional systems. Journal of Philosophy 68:68–87. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1978) Brainstorms: Philosophical essays on mind and psychology. The MIT Press. [PAG]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1983) Intentional systems in cognitive ethology: The “Panglossian paradigm” defended. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6:343–55. [arDLC, PAG, WN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1987) The intentional stance. MIT Press. [aDLC, CA, PAG]Google Scholar
de Waal, F. (1982) Chimpanzee politics. Harper & Row. [aDLC, GMB, MT]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1987) Dynamics of social relationships. In: Primate societies, ed. Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R. W. & Struhsaker, T. T.. University of Chicago Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1989) Peacemaking among primates. Harvard University Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
deWaal, F. B. M. & Ren, R.-M. (1988) Comparison of the reconciliation behavior of stumptail and rhesus macaques. Ethology 78:129–42. [aDLC]Google Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M. & van Roosmalen, A. (1979) Reconciliation and consolation among chimpanzees. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology 5:55–66. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M. & Yoshihara, D. (1983) Reconciliation and redirected aggression in rhesus monkeys. Behaviour 85:224–41. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickinson, A. (1980) Contemporary animal learning theory. Cambridge University Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Dittrich, W. (1988) Wie klassifizieren Javaneraffen (Macaca fascicularis) natürliche Muster? Ethology 77:187–208. [WHD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dittrich, W. (1990) Das Erkennen von Ausdrucksbewegungen aus den Bewegungen des Gesichts. Psychologische Beiträge 3/4, in press. [WHD]Google Scholar
Donnelley, S. & Nolan, K., eds. (1990) Animals, science and ethics. Special supplement of the Hastings Center, vol. 20(3), May/June. [GMB]Google ScholarPubMed
Elowson, A. M., Tannenbaum, P. L. & Snowdon, C. T. (in press) Foodassociated calls correlate with food preferences in cotton-top tamarins. Animal Behaviour. [CTS]Google Scholar
Emlen, S. T. & Wrege, P. H. (1988) The role of kinship in helping decisions among white-fronted bee-eaters. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology 23:305–15. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enomoto, T. (1978) On social preference in sexual behavior of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata). Journal of Human Evolution 7:283–93. [HG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Essock-Vitale, S. & Seyfarth, R. M. (1987) Intelligence and Social cognition. In: Primate societies, ed. Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R. W. & Struhsaker, T. T.. University of Chicago Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Flavell, J. H. (1988) The development of children's knowledge about the mind: From cognitive connections to mental representations. In: Developing theories of mind, ed. Astington, J. W., Harris, P. L. & Olson, D. R.. Cambridge University Press. [DJP]Google Scholar
Flavell, J. H., Everett, B. A., Croft, K. & Flavell, E. R. (1981) Young children's knowledge about visual perception: Further evidence for the Level 1-Level 2 distinction. Developmental Psychology 17:99–103. [AW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flavell, J. H., Green, F. L. & Flavell, E. R. (1989) Young children's ability to differentiate appearance-reality and level 2 perspectives in the tactile modality. Child Development 60:201–13. [DJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fodor, J. (1981) The mind-body problem. Scientific American 244(1): 114–23. [PAG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fodor, J. (1983) The modularity of mind. Bradford Books. [rDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J. A. & Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1981) How direct is visual perception? Some reflection on Gibson's “ecological approach.” Cognition 9:139–96. [aDLC, PAG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frith, U. (1989) Autism: Explaining the enigma. Blackwell. [FH]Google Scholar
Furth, H. G. (1966) Thinking without language: Psychological implications of deafness. The Free Press. [HGF]Google Scholar
Furth, H. G. (1987) Knowledge as desire: An essay on Freud and Piaget. Columbia University Press. [HGF]Google Scholar
Furth, H. G. (1992a) Psychoanalysis and social thought: The endogenous origin of society. Political Psychology, in press. [HGF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furth, H. G. (1992b) The developmental origin of human societies. In: Piaget's theory: Prospects and possibilities, ed. Beilin, H. & Pufall, P. B.. Erlbaum, in press. [HGF]Google Scholar
Furth, H. G. & Kane, S. R. (1992) Children constructing society: A new perspective on children at play. In: Childhood social development: Contemporary perspectives, ed. McGurk, H. G.. Erlbaum, in press. [HGF]Google Scholar
Gaffan, D. (1987) Amnesia, personal memory, and the hippocampus: Experimental neuropsychological studies in monkeys. In: Cognitive neurochemistry, ed. Stahl, S. M., Iversen, S. D. & Goodman, E. C.. Oxford University Press. [RMR]Google Scholar
Galdikas, B. M. F. & Vasey, P. (in press) Why are orangutans so smart? In: Primate cognition, ed. F. Burton. [BMFG]Google Scholar
Galef, B. G. (1981) The ecology of weaning: Parasitism and the achievement of independence by altricial mammals. In: Parental care in mammals, ed. Gubernick, D. J. & Klopfer, P. H.. Plenum Press. [DHO]Google Scholar
Gallistel, C. R. (1989) The organization of learning. MIT Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G. & Suarez, S. D. (1986) Self-awareness and the emergence of mind in humans and other primates. In: Psychological perspectives on the self, vol. 3, ed. Suls, J. & Greenwald, A. G.. Erlbaum. [DJP]Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1982) Self-awareness and the emergence of mind in primates. American Journal of Primatology 2:237–48. [DJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1983) Toward a comparative psychology of mind. In: Animal cognition and behavior, ed. Mellgren, R. E.. North Holland. [DJP]Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1985) Do minds exist in species other than our own? Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 9:631–41. [DJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gallup, G. G. & Suarez, S. D. (1986) Self-awareness and the emergence of mind in humans and other primates. In: Psychological perspectives on the self, vol. 3, ed. Suls, J. & Greenwald, A. G.. Erlbaum. [DJP]Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (1987) The mind's new science: A history of the cognitive revolution, 2nd ed.Basic Books. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1979) The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton Mifflin. [PAG]Google Scholar
Gillberg, C. (1991) Clinical and neurobiological aspects of Asperger syndrome in six family studies. In: Autism and Asperger syndrome, ed. Frith, U.. Cambridge University Press. [FH]Google Scholar
Glotzbach, P. A. (1983) Referential inscrutability, perception, and the empirical foundation of meaning. Philosophical Research Archives 9:535–69. [PAG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glotzbach, P. A. (in press) Determining the primary problem of visual perception: A Gibsonian response to the “correlations” objection. Philosophical Psychology. [PAG]Google Scholar
Glotzbach, P. A. & Heft, H. (1982) Ecological and phenomenological contributions to the psychology of perception. NOUS 16:108–21. [PAG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodall, J. (1986) The chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of behavior. The Belknap Press/Harvard University Press. [CB]Google Scholar
Gould, J. L. (1982) Ethology: The mechanisms of evolution and behavior. W. W. Norton. [arDLC]Google Scholar
Gould, J. L. & Gould, C. G. (1988) The honey bee. W. H. Freeman. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Greenfield, P. M. & Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S. (1990) Grammatical combination in Pan paniscus: Processes of learning and invention in the evolution and development of language. In: “Language” and intelligence in monkeys and apes: Comparative developmental perspectives, ed. Parker, S. T. & Gibson, K. R.. Cambridge University Press. [rDLC]Google Scholar
Gregory, R. L. (1980) Perceptions as hypotheses. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 290:181–97. [WHD]Google ScholarPubMed
Griffin, D. (1976) The question of animal awareness: Evolutionary continuity of mental experience. Rockefeller University Press. [GMB, MT]Google Scholar
Griffin, D. (1982) Animal mind - human mind. Springer. [WHD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groves, C. P. (1989) A theory of human and primate evolution. Clarendon Press. [WN]Google Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) The genetical evolution of social behavior, I. and II. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:1–51. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Happé, F. G. E. (1991) The autobiographical writings of three Asperger syndrome adults: Problems of interpretation and implications for theory. In: Autism and Asperger syndrome, ed. Frith, U.. Cambridge University Press. [FH]Google Scholar
Harcourt, A. H. (1988) Alliances in contest and social intelligence. In: Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and humans, ed. Byrne, R. W. & Whiten, A.. Clarendon Press. [BMFG]Google Scholar
Haring, V., Gray, J. E., McClure, B. A., Anderson, M. A. & Clarke, A. E. (1990) Self-incompatibility: A self-recognition system in plants. Science 250:937–41. [DJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harlow, H. F. (1949) The formation of learning sets. Psychological Review 56:51–65. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hauser, M. D. (1986) Male responsiveness to infant distress calls in freeranging vervet monkeys. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology 19:65–71. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hauser, M. D. & Wrangham, R. W. (1987) Manipulation of food calls in captive chimpanzees. Folia Primatologica 48:207–10. [CTS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, K. C. & Hayes, C. (1952) Imitation in a home-raised chimpanzee. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 45:450–59. [AW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heft, H. (1989) Affordances and the body: An intentional analysis of Gibson's ecological approach to visual perception. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior 19:1–30. [PAG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hegner, R. E. & Emlen, S. T. (1987) Territorial organization of the whitefronted bee-eater in Kenya. Ethology 76:189–222. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1985) Riddles of natural categorization. In: Animal intelligence, ed. Weiskrantz, L.. Clarendon Press. [WHD]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1990) Levels of stimulus control: A functional approach. Cognition 37:133–66. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hilgard, E. (1980) Consciousness in contemporary psychology. Animal Review of Psychology 31:1–26. [GMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobson, R. P. (1984) Early childhood autism and the question of egocentrism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 14:85–104. [FH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howe, M. J. A. (1988) Intelligence as an explanation. British Journal of Psychology 79:349–60. [WHD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphrey, N. K. (1976) The social function of intellect. In: Growing points in ethology, ed. Bateson, P. & Hinde, R. A.. Cambridge University Press. [aDLC, JS]Google Scholar
Humphrey, N. K. (1983) Consciousness regained. Oxford University Press (Oxford). [aDLC, LM]Google Scholar
Huxley, A. F. (1983) How far will Darwin take us? In: Evolution from molecules to men, ed. Bendall, D. S.. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [WN]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1987) The mental representation of the meaning of words. Cognition 25:189–211. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jolly, A. (1966) Lemur social behavior and primate intelligence. Science 153:501–06. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jolly, A. (1979) Feeding versus social factors in cognitive evolution: Can't we have it both ways? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2:389–90. [BMFG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jolly, A. (1985) The evolution of primate behavior, 2nd ed.Macmillan. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Jones, E. E. (1990) Interpersonal perception. Freeman. [SIP]Google Scholar
Judge, P. (1982) Redirection of aggression based on kinship in a captive group of pigtail macaques. International Journal of Primatology 3:301. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Kamil, A. C. (1987) A synthetic approach to the study of animal intelligence. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 7:257–38. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Koehler, W. (1925) The mentality of apes. Humanities Press. [EV]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R. & Dawkins, R. (1984) Animal signals: Mindreading and manipulation. In: Behavioral ecology: An integrated approach, ed. Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B.. Basil Blackwell. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B. (1990) Behavioural ecology: An evolutionary approach, 3rd ed.Basil Blackwell. [AW]Google Scholar
Kummer, H. (1971) Primate Societies. Aldine. [aDLC, AW]Google Scholar
Kummer, H. (1982) Social knowledge in free-ranging primates. In: Animal mind - human mind, ed. Griffin, D. R.. Springer-Verlag. [aDLC, AW]Google Scholar
Langer, E. (1989) Mindfulness. Addison-Wesley. [SIP]Google Scholar
Lea, S. E. G. (1984) In what sense do pigeons learn concepts? In: Animal cognition, ed. Roitblat, H. L., Bever, T. G. & Terrace, H. S.. Erlbaum. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Lea, S. E. G. & Ryan, C. M. E. (1990) Unnatural concepts and the theory of concept discrimination in birds. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior, vol. 8: Behavioral approaches to pattern recognition and concept formation, ed. Commons, M. L., Herrnstein, R. J., Kosslyn, S. & Mumford, D.. Erlbaum. [WHD]Google Scholar
Lee, P. C. (1983) Context-specific unpredictability in dominance interactions. In: Primate social relationships, ed. Hinde, R. A.. Basil Blackwell. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Leekam, S. & Perner, J. (in press) Does the autistic child have a metarepresentational deficit? Cognition. [FH]Google Scholar
Leslie, A. M. (1986) Getting development off the ground: Modularity and the infant's perception of causality. In: Theory building in development, ed. van Gest, P.. North-Holland. [EV]Google Scholar
Leslie, A. M. (1987) Pretence and representation: The origins of “theory of mind.” Psychological Review 94:84–426. [rDLC, FH, DJP, AW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leslie, A. M. (1988) The necessity of illusion: Perception and thought in infancy. In: Thought without language, ed. Weiskrantz, L.. Oxford University Press. [EV]Google Scholar
Leslie, A. M. & Frith, U. (1988) Autistic children's understanding of seeing, knowing and believing. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 6:315–24. [FH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leslie, A. M. & Keeble, S. (1987) Do six-month-old infants perceive causality? Cognition 25:265–88. [EV]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leslie, A. M. & Thaiss, L. (in press) Domain specificity and conceptual development: Neuropsychological evidence from autism. Cognition. [FH]Google Scholar
Lloyd Morgan, C. (1894) Introduction to comparative psychology. William R. Scott. [AJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorenz, K. (1975) Evolution and modification of behavior. University of Chicago Press. [WHD]Google Scholar
Loughry, W. J. & McDonough, C. M. (1988) Calling and vigilance in California ground squirrels: A test of the tonic communication hypotheses. Animal Behaviour 36:1533–540. [DHO]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackintosh, N. J. (1983) Conditioning and associative learning. Oxford University Press. [WHD]Google Scholar
Markl, H. (1985) Manipulation, modulation, information, cognition: Some of the riddles of communication. In: Experimental behavioral ecology & sociobiology, ed. Holldobler, B. & Lindauer, M.. Sinauer. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Markus, H. & Zajonc, R. B. (1985) The cognitive perspective in social psychology. In: Handbook of social psychology, 3rd ed., ed. Lindzey, G. & Aronson, E.. Random House. [SIP]Google Scholar
Marler, P. (1977) Primate vocalizations: Affective or symbolic? In: Progress in ape research, ed. Bourne, G. H.. Academic Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Marler, P., Dufty, A. & Pickert, R. (1986) Vocal communication in the domestic chicken. I. Does a sender communicate information about the quality of a food referent to a receiver? Animal Behaviour 34:188–93. [CTS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marler, P., Karkashian, S. & Gyger, M. (1990) Do animals have the option of withholding signals when communication is inappropriate? In: Cognitive ethology: The minds of other animals (essays in honor of Donald R. Griffin), ed. Ristau, C.. Erlbaum. [aDLC, DAD]Google Scholar
Marshall, J. C. (1970) The biology of communication in man and animals. In: New horizons in linguistics, ed. Lyons, J.. Penguin. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Mason, W. A. (1978) Environmental models and mental modes: Representational processes in the great apes. In: The great apes: Perspectives on human evolution, ed. Hamburg, D. R. & McCown, E. R.. Benjamin/Cummings. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Mason, W. A. (1986) Behavior implies cognition. In: Integrating scientific disciplines, ed. Bechtel, W.. Martinus Nijhoff. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Maynard Smith, J. (1974) The theory of games and the evolution of animal conflict. Journal of Theoretical Biology 47:209–21. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McArthur, L. Z. & Baron, R. M. (1983) Toward an ecological theory of social perception. Psychological Review 90:215–38. [PAG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McFarland, D. (1989) Problems in animal behaviour. Longman. [WHD]Google Scholar
Menzel, C. R. (1991) Cognitive aspects of foraging in Japanese monkeys. Animal Behavior 41:397–402. [BMFG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menzel, E. W. (1971) Communication about the environment in a group of young chimpanzees. Folia Primatologica 15:220–32. [WN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michaels, C. F. & Carello, C. (1981) Direct perception. Prentice-Hall [DHO]Google Scholar
Milton, K. (1988) Foraging behavior and the evolution of primate intelligence. Iń: Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes and humans, ed. Byrne, R. W. & Whiten, A.. Oxford University Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Mishkin, M., Malamut, B. & Bachevalier, J. (1984) Memories and habits: Two neural systems. In: Neurobiology of learning and memory, ed. Lynch, G., McGaugh, J. L. & Weinberger, N. M.. Guildford Press. [RMR]Google Scholar
Mishkin, M., Spiegler, B. J.Saunders, R. C. & Malamut, B. L. (1982) An animal model of global amnesia. In: Alzheimer's disease: A review of progress, ed. Corkin, S., David, K. L., Growden, J. H., Usdin, E. & Wurtman, R. J.. Raven Press. [RMR]Google Scholar
Monahan, J. (1982) The prediction of violent behavior: Developments in psychology and law. In: The master lecture series, vol. 2: Psychology and the law, ed. Scheirer, C. J. & Hammonds, B. L.. American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C. [LM]Google Scholar
Nagel, T. (1974) What is it like to be a bat? Philosophical Review 83:435–50. [CA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nisbett, R. E. & Wilson, T. D. (1977) Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review 84:231–59. [SIP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nishida, T. (1983) Alpha status and agonistic alliance in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). Primates 24:318–36. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noble, W. & Davidson, I. (1991) The evolutionary emergence of modern human behaviour: Language and its archaeology. Man: Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 26:602–32. [WN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nunez, M. & Riviere, A. (1990) Theory of mind and other cognitive developments. Poster presented at IV European Conference of Developmental Psychology, Stirling, Scotland. [FH]Google Scholar
Owings, D. H. & Hennessy, D. F. (1984) The importance of variation in sciurid visual and vocal communication. In: The biology of grounddwelling squirrels, ed. Murie, J. O. & Michener, G. R.. University of Nebraska Press. [DHO]Google Scholar
Owings, D. H., & Loughry, W. J. (1985) Variation in snake-elicited jumpyipping by black-tailed prairie dogs: Ontogeny and snake specificity. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 70:177–200. [DHO]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Owings, D. H., Hennessy, D. F., Leger, D. W. & Gladney, A. B. (1986) Different functions of “alarm” calling for different time scales: A preliminary report on ground squirrels. Behavior 99:101–16. [DHO]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Packer, C. (1977) Reciprocal altruism in olive baboons. Nature 265:441–43. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, S. & Gibson, K. (eds.) (1990) “Language” and intelligence in monkeys and apes: Comparative developmental perspectives. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [MT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul, R. (1987) Communication. In: Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders, ed. Cohen, D. J., Donnellan, A. M. & Paul, R.. Wiley. [FH]Google Scholar
Perner, J. (in press) Understanding the representational mind. MIT Press. [DJP]Google Scholar
Perrett, D. I. P., Benson, P. J., Hietanen, J. K., Oram, M. W. & Dittrich, W. H. (in press) When is a face not a face? Correlations between perception and single neurons. In: Anomalies of space, form, colour in perception and art: Links with normal and abnormal brain function, ed. R. Gregory & J. Harris. [WHD]Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1945) La formation du symbole chez l'enfant. Delachaux & Niestlé. [EV]Google Scholar
Plutchik, R. (1980) Emotion: Theory, research, and experience. Academic Press. [LM]Google Scholar
Povinelli, D. J. & deBlois, S. T. (submitted) Young children's (Homo sapiens) understanding of knowledge formation in themselves and others. Journal of Comparative Psychology. [DJP]Google Scholar
Povinelli, D. J., Nelson, K. E. & Boysen, S. T. (1990) Inferences about guessing and knowing by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology 104:203–10. [rDLC, DJP, EV, AW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Povinelli, D. J., Nelson, K. E. & Boysen, S. T. (in press) Comprehension of role-reversal in chimpanzees: Evidence of empathy? Animal Behaviour. [DJP]Google Scholar
Povinelli, D. J., Parks, K. A. & Novak, M. A. (in press) Do rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatto) attribute knowledge and ignorance to others? Journal of Comparative Psychology. [DJP]Google Scholar
Povinelli, D. J., Parks, K. A. & Novak, M. A. (submitted) Role reversal in rhesus monkeys: No evidence of empathy. Animal Behaviour. [DJP]Google Scholar
Premack, D. (1976) Intelligence in ape and man. Erlbaum. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Premack, D. (1983) The codes of man and beast. Behavioral & Brain Sciences 6:125–67. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Premack, D. (1986) Gavagai. MIT Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Premack, D. (1988a) “Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?” revisited. In: Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and humans, ed. Byrne, R. & Whiten, A.. Oxford University Press (Oxford). [SB-C, HGF, AW]Google Scholar
Premack, D. (1988b) Minds with and without language. In: Thought without language, ed. Weiskrantz, I.. Oxford University Press. [EV]Google Scholar
Premack, D. & Dasser, V. (1991) Perceptual origins and conceptual evidence for theory of mind in apes and children. In: Natural theories of mind: Evolution, development and simulation of everyday mindreading, ed. Whiten, A.. Basil Blackwell. [AW]Google Scholar
Premack, D. & Woodruff, G. (1978) Does the chimpanzee have a “theory of mind”? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:515–26. [aDLC, SB-C]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quattrone, G. A. (1985) On the congruity between internal states and action. Psychological Bulletin 98:3–40. [SIP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quine, W. V. O. (1960) Word and object. MIT Press. [aDLC, PAG]Google Scholar
Reed, E. S. (1988) James J. Gibson and the psychology of perception. Yale University Press. [PAG]Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. (1988) Pavlovian conditioning: It's not what you think it is. American Psychologist 43:151–60. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ridley, R. M. & Baker, H. F. (1991) A critical evaluation of primate models of amnesia and dementia. Brain Research Reviews 16:15–37. [RMR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roitblat, H. (1987) Introduction to comparative cognition. W. H. Freeman. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Romanes, G. J. (1874) Migration of birds. Nature 10:520–21. [DAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romanes, G. J. (1882) Animal intelligence. Kegan Paul. [DAD, AJF]Google Scholar
Romanes, G. J. (1885a) Jelly-fish, star-fish, and sea-urchins being a research in primitive nervous systems. Appleton. [DAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romanes, G. J. (1885b) Homing faculty of Hymenoptera. Nature 32:630. [DAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosch, E. & Lloyd, B. B., eds. (1978) Cognition and categorization. Erlbaum. [WHD]Google Scholar
Rozin, P. (1976) The evolution of intelligence and access to the cognitive unconscious. In: Progress in psychology, vol. 6, eds. Sprague, J. N. & Epstein, A. N., Academic Press. [aDLC, WHD]Google Scholar
Rozin, P. & Schull, J. (1988) The adaptive-evolutionary point of view in experimental psychology. In: Handbook of experimental psychology: Motivation, ed. Atkinson, R., Herrnstein, R. J., Lindsey, G. & Luce, R. D.. John Wiley. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Russell, J., Mauthner, N., Sharpe, S. & Tidswell, T. (1991) The “windows task” as a measure of strategic deception in preschoolers and autistic subjects. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 9:101–19. [FH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schleidt, W. M. (1973) Tonic communication: Continual effects of discrete signs in animal communication systems. Journal of Theoretical Biology 42:359–86. [DHO]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Searle, J. R. (1990) Consciousness, explanatory inversion and cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13:585–95. [WHD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seyfarth, R. M. (1977) A model of social grooming among adult female monkeys. Journal of Theoretical Biology 65:671–98. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seyfarth, R. M. (1980) The distribution of grooming and related behaviors among adult female vervet monkeys. Animal Behavior 28:798–813. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seyfarth, R. M. & Cheney, D. L. (1984) Grooming, alliances, and reciprocal altruism in vervet monkeys. Nature 308:541–43. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siegal, M. & Beattie, K. (1991) Where to look first for children's knowledge of false beliefs. Cognition 38:1–12. [DJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sigg, H. & Stolba, A. (1981) Home range and daily march in a hamadryas baboon troop. Folia Primatologica 36:40–75. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silk, J. B. (1982) Altruism among female Macaca radiata: Explanations and analysis of patterns of grooming and coalition formation. Behaviour 79:162–88. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, H. A. (1981) The sciences of the artificial, 2nd ed.MIT Press. [WHD]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1990) Can psychology be a science of mind? American Psychologist 45:1206–10. [GMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, E. E. & Medin, D. L. (1981) Categories and concepts. Harvard University Press. [WHD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, H. J., Newman, J. D. & Symmes, D. (1982) Vocal concomitants of affiliative behavior in squirrel monkeys. In: Primate communication, ed. Snowden, C. T., Brown, C. H. & Petersen, M.Cambridge University Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Smith, J. D., Schull, J. & Washburn, D. A. (in preparation) Metacognition in the rhesus monkey, macaca mulatta. [JS]Google Scholar
Smith, W. J. (1986) Signaling behavior: Contributions of different repertoires. In: Dolphin cognition and behavior: A comparative approach, ed. Schusterman, R. J., Thomas, J. A. & Wood, F. G.Erlbaum. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Smith, W. J. (1990) Animal communication and the study of cognition. In: Cognitive ethology: The minds of other animals (essays in honor of Donald R. Griffin), ed. Ristau, C.. Erlbaum. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Smith, W. J., Smith, S. L., Oppenheimer, E. C. & Devilla, J. G. (1977) Vocalizations of the black-tailed prairie dog, Cynomys ludovicianus. Animal Behavior 25:152–64. [DHO]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smuts, B. B. (1985) Sex and friendship in baboons. Aldine. [HG]Google Scholar
Snowden, C. T. & Hodun, A. (1981) Acoustic adaptations in pygymy marmoset contact calls: Locatiooal cues vary with distance between conspecifics. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology 9:295–300. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sodian, B. & Frith, U. (in press) Deception and sabotage in autistic, retarded and normal children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. [FH]Google Scholar
Sperber, D. & Wilson, D. (1986) Relevance: Communication and cognition. Basil Blackwell. [FH]Google Scholar
Squire, L. R. (1986) Mechanisms of memory. Science 232:1612–619. [RMR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stammbach, E. (1988) Group responses to specially skilled individuals in a Macaca fascicularis group. Behaviour 107:241–66. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steklis, H. D. & Raleigh, M. J. (1979) Behavioral and neurobiological aspects of primate vocalization and facial expressions. In: Neurobiology of social communication in primates, ed. Steklis, H. D. & Raleigh, M. J.. Academic Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Stewart, K. J. & Harcourt, A. H. (1987) Gorillas: Variation in female relationships. In: Primate societies, ed. Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R. W. & Struhsaker, T. T.. University of Chicago Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Strong, P. N. & Hedges, M. (1966) Comparative studies in simple oddity learning. I. Cats, raccoons, monkeys, and chimpanzees. Psychonomic Science 5:13–14. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Struhsaker, T. T. (1967) Auditory communication among vervet monkeys. In: Social communication among primates, ed. Altmann, S. A.. University of Chicago Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Takahata, Y. (1982) Social relations between adult males and females of Japanese monkeys in the Arashiyama B troop. Primates 23:1–23. [HG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tan, J. & Harris, P. (1990) Autistic children understand seeing and wanting. Unpublished manuscript. [FH]Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1951) The study of instinct. Oxford University Press. [AW]Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1959) Comparative studies of the behavior of gulls. (Laridae): A progress report. Behavior 15:1–70. [AW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1963) On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 20:410–29 [GMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tinbergen, N. & Kruyt, W. (1938) Ueber die Orientierung des Bienenwolfes (Philanthus triangulum Fabr.) III. Die Bevorzugung bestimmter Wegmarken. Zeitschrift der Vergleichende Physiologie 25:292–334. [CTS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomasello, M. (1990) Cultural transmission in the tool use and communicatory signalling of chimpanzees? In: “Language” and intelligence in monkeys and apes: Comparative developmental perspectives, ed. Parker, S. & Gibson, K.. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [MT]Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., Davis-Dasilva, M., Camak, L. & Bard, K. (1987) Observational learning of tool-use by young chimpanzees. Journal of Human Evolution 2:175–83. [CB, AW].CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (1989) Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture, part I: Theoretical considerations. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:29–50. [SIP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uexküll, J. von (1934/1957) A stroll through the world of animals and men. In: Instinctive behavior, ed. Schiller, C. H.. International Universities Press. [GMB]Google Scholar
Visalberghi, E. (in press) Capuchin monkeys. A window into tool use activities by apes and humans. In: Tools, language and cognition in human evolution, ed. K. Gibson & T. Ingold. Cambridge University Press. [EV]Google Scholar
Visalberghi, E. & Fragszy, D. (1990) Do monkeys ape? In: “Language” and intelligence in monkeys and apes, ed. Parker, S. & Gibson, K.. Cambridge University Press. [EV]Google Scholar
Visalberghi, E. & Limongelli, L. (in preparation) Comprehension of causeeffect relationships in tool-using capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). [EV]Google Scholar
Visalberghi, E. & Trinca, L. (1989) Tool use in capuchin monkeys: Distinguishing between performing and understanding. Primates 30:511–21. [EV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
von Frisch, K. (1967) The dance language and orientation of bees. Harvard University Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Walters, J. R. & Seyfarth, R. M. (1987) Conflict and cooperation. In: Primate societies, ed. Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R. W. & Struhsaker, T. T.. University of Chicago Press. [aDLC]Google Scholar
Weiner, B. (1985) Spontaneous causal search. Psychological Bulletin 97:74–84. [SIP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiskrantz, L., ed. (1985) Animal intelligence. Clarendon Press. [WHD]Google Scholar
Wellman, H. M. (1991) From desires to beliefs: Acquisition of a theory of mind. In: Natural theories of mind: Evolution, development and simulation of everyday mindreading, ed. Whiten, A.. Basil Blackwell. [AW]Google Scholar
Whiten, A. (1989a) Transmission mechanisms in primate cultural evolution. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 4:61–62. [AW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiten, A. (1989b) From literal to non-literal social knowledge in human ontogeny and primate phytogeny. Paper presented at Primate Society of Great Britain meeting on Social Knowledge in Primates, 1988. Primate Eye 37:11 (abstract). [AW]Google Scholar
Whiten, A. (1991a) Natural theories of mind. Evolution, development and simulation of everyday mind reading. Basil Blackwell. [EV]Google Scholar
Whiten, A. (1991b) Inside the monkey mind. Current Anthropology (in press). [AW]Google Scholar
Whiten, A. & Byrne, R. W. (1988a) The manipulation of attention in primate tactical deception. In: Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes and humans, ed. Byrne, R. W. & Whiten, A.. Oxford University Press. [AW]Google Scholar
Whiten, A. & Byrne, R. W. (1988b) Tactical deception in primates. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:233–73. [aDLC, AW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiten, A. & Byrne, R. W. (1991) The emergence of metarepresentation in human ontogeny and primate phylogeny. In: Natural theories of mind: Evolution, development and simulation of everyday mindreading, ed. Whiten, A.. Basil Blackwell. [EV, AW]Google Scholar
Whiten, A. & Ham, R. (1992) On the nature and evolution of imitation in the animal kingdom: Reappraisal of a century of research. In: Advances in the study of behavior, vol. 21, ed. Slater, P. J. B., Rosenblatt, J. S. & Beer, C.. Academic Press. [AW]Google Scholar
Woodruff, G. & Premack, D. (1979) Intentional communication in the chimpanzee: The development of deception. Cognition 7:333–62. [EV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wulff, S. B. (1985) The symbolic and object play of children with autism: A review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disabilities 15:139–48. [FH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
York, A. D. & Rowell, T. E. (1988) Reconciliation following aggression in patas monkeys, Erythrocebus patas. Animal Behaviour 36:502–09. [aDLC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaitchik, D. (1990) When representations conflict with reality: The preschoolers' problem with false belief and “false” photographs. Cognition 35:41–68. [FH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zajonc, R. B. (1965) Social facilitation. Science 149:269–74. [DAD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zajonc, R. B. (1984) On the primacy of affect. American Psychologist 39:117–23. [SIP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar