Hostname: page-component-cb9f654ff-mnl9s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-09-06T02:42:26.099Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Regions, networks: Interpreting functional neuroimaging data

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Barry Horwitz
Barry Horwitz
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Neurosciences, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892horwitz@alw.nih.gov
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The subtraction and covariance paradigms are two analytic techniques used with functional neuroimaging data. The first assumes that a brain region participating in a task should show altered neural activity (relative to a control task). The second assumes that tasks are mediated by networks of interacting regions.Images of mind attempts to link results from the subtraction paradigm with a network interpretation that could have been more explicitly done using the covariance paradigm.

Information

Type
Open Peer Commentary
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 18 , Issue 2 , June 1995 , pp. 360
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1995

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Allen, J. F., Kautz, H. A., Pelavin, R. N. & Tenenberg, J. D. (1991) Reasoning about plans. Morgan Kaufmann. [JC]Google Scholar
Amaral, D. G. (1987) Memory: Anatomical organization of candidate brain regions. In: Handbook of Physiology: 5. The Nervous System, ed Bookhart, J. M. & Mountcastle, V.. The American Physiological Society. [NK]Google Scholar
Anderson, S. W., Damasio, H., Jones, R. D. & Tranel, D. (1991) Wisconsin card sorting test performance as a measure of frontal lobe damage. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 13(6):909–22. [JG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andreasen, N. C., Rezai, K., Alliger, R., Swayze, V. W. et al. (1992) Hypofrontality in neuroleptic-naive patients and in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 49:943–58. [CBF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arecchi, F. T., Basti, G., Boccaletti, S., Perrone, A. (1994) Adaptive recognition of chaos. Europhysics Letters 26:327–32. [ALP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Basti, G. & Perrone, A. (1993) Per un ruolo costitutivo del caos deterministico nei sistemi neurali biologici ed artificiali. In: Biosistemi e complessitá CNR—Gruppo Nazionale di Bioingegneria, 12, eds. Belardinelli, E. & Ceutti, S.. Pàron. [ALP]Google Scholar
Basti, G., Perrone, A. & Cocciolo, P. (1994) Using chaotic neural nets to compress, store and trasmit information. In: Applications of Artificial Neural Networks, 5, eds. Rogers, S.K. & Ruck, D. W.. The International Society for Optical Engineering Proceedings Series, 2243 [ALP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateson, G. (1980) Mind and nature: A necessary unity. Bantam. [BG]Google Scholar
Baudena, P., Heit, G., Clarke, J. M. & Halgren, E. (in press) Intracerebral potentials to rare target and distractor auditory and visual stimuli: 3. Frontal cortex. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology [EH]Google Scholar
Bench, C. J., Friston, K. J., Brown, R., Frackowiak, R. S. J. & Dolan, R. J. (1993) Regional cerebral blood flow CBF in depression measured by positron emission tomography (PET): The relationship with clinical dimensions. Psychological Medicine 23:579–90. [CBF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bench, C. J., Frith, C. D., Grasby, P. M., Friston, K. J., Paulesu, E., Frackowiak, R. S. J. & Dolan, R. J. (1993) Investigations of the functional anatomy of attention using the Stroop test. Neuropsychologia 31(9):90722. [JG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ben-Dov, G. & Carmon, A. (1976) On time, space and the cerebral hemispheres: A theoretical note. International Journal of Neurosdence 7:29–33. [UF]Google Scholar
Benson, D. F. (1993) Aphasia. In: Clinical Neuropsychology, ed. Heilman, K. M. & Valenstine, E.. Oxford University Press. [PTF]Google Scholar
Benson, D. F. & Geschwind, N. (1985) Aphasia and related disorders: A clinical approach. In: Principals of Behavioral Neurology, ed. Mesulam, M.-M.. Davis. [PTF]Google Scholar
Berman, K. F., Randolph, C., Cold, J., Holt, D., Jones, D. W., Goldberg, T. E., Carson, R. E. & Herscovitch, P. (1991) Physiological activation of frontal lobe studied with positron emission tomography and oxygen-15 water during working memory tasks. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 11(Supplement 2):S851. [JC]Google Scholar
Besson, M., Jacobs, A. M., Ziegler, J., Rey, A., Montant, M., Nazir, T. A. & Carr, T. H. (1994) Separating component operations of visual word recognition with electrical imaging and computational modeling. Paper presented at the 35th annual meeting of The Psychonomic Society, St. Louis, MO. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Bisiach, E. (1992) Understanding consciousness: Clues from unilateral neglect and other disorders. In: The neuropsychology of consciousness, ed. Milner, A. D. & Rugg, M. D.. Academic Press. [aMIP]Google Scholar
Brickner, R. M. (1934) An interpretation of frontal lobe function based upon the study of a case of partial bilateral frontal lobectomy in research publications: Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease. Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease. [JG]Google Scholar
Broca, P. P. (1863) Sur la faculté du langage articulé Bulletin Societé d'Anthropologie Paris 6:227–93. [PTF]Google Scholar
Brodal, A. (1973) Self-observations and neuroanatomical considerations after a stroke. Brain 97:675–94. [GG]Google Scholar
Bub, D., Evan, A. C., Meyers, E., Chertkow, H., Marrett, S. (1991) The role of the temporal cortex in single word recognition: Anatomical mapping of functional activation. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 11(Supplement2):S850. [JG]Google Scholar
Buckner, R. L. & Tulving, E. (in press) Neuroimaging studies of memory: Theory and recent PET results. In: Handbook of Neuropsychology, col. 10, ed. Boiler, F. and Grafman, J.. Elsevier. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Buckner, R. L., Petersen, S. E., Ojemann, J. G., Miezin, F. M., Squire, L. R. & Raichle, M. E. (in press) Functional anatomical studies of explicit and implicit memory retrieval tasks. Journal of Neuroscience. [KAP]Google Scholar
Burghardt, G. M. (1993) The comparative imperative: Genetics and ontogeny of chemoreceptive prey responses in natricine snakes. Brain, Behavior, and Evolution 41:138–46. [GMB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burghardt, G. M. (in press) Amending Tinbergen: A fifth aim for ethology. In: Anthropomorphism, anecdotes, and animals: The emperor's new clothes, ed. Mitchell, R. W., Thompson, N. S. or Miles, H. Lyn. University of Nebraska Press. [GMB]Google Scholar
Carr, T. H. & Pollatsek, A. (1985) Recognizing printed words: A look at current models. In: Reading research: Advances in theory and practice 5, ed. Besner, D., Waller, T. G. & MacKinnon, G. E.. Academic Press. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Carr, T. H. & Posner, M. I. (in press) The impact of learning to read on the functional anatomy of language processing. In Language and literacy: Comparative approaches, ed. de Gelder, B. & Morais, J.. MIT Press. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Chelazzi, L., Miller, E., Duncan, J. & Desimone, R. (1993) A neural basis for visual search in inferior temporal cortex. Nature 363:345–47. [JKT]Google Scholar
Chollet, F., DiPiero, V., Wise, R. J. S., Brooks, D. J., Dolan, R. J. & Frackowiak, R. J. S. (1991) The functional anatomy of motor recovery after stroke in humans: A study with positron emission tomography. Annals of Neurology 29:63–71. [GG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clarke, J. M., Chauvel, P., Scarabin, J. M. & Halgren, E. (1992) Intracerebral measures of lateralized processing humans: Effects of visual field, response hand, and processing stage. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 18:336. [EH]Google Scholar
Cohen, J. D. & Servan, S. D. (1992) Context, cortex, and dopamine: A connectionist approach to behavior and biology in schizophrenia. Psychological Review 99(1):45–77. [JG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colebatch, J. G., Deiber, M.-P., Passingham, R. E., Friston, K. J. & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991) Regional cerebral blood flow during voluntary arm and hand movements in human subjects. Journal of Neurophysiology 65(6):1392–1401. [PTF, JG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coltheart, M. (1978) Lexical access in simple reading tasks. In: Strategies of information processing, ed. Underwood, G.. Academic Press. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P. & Haller, M. (1993) Models of reading aloud: Dual-rout approaches and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological Review 100:589–608. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Compton, P., Grossenbacher, P., Posner, M. I. & Tucker, D. M. (1991) A cognitive anatomical approach to attention in lexical access. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 3:304–12. [AMJ, aMIP]Google Scholar
Corbetta, M., Meizin, F. M., Dobmeyer, S., Shulman, G. L. & Petersen, S. E. (1991) Selective and divided attention during visual discrimination of shape, color and speed: Functional anatomy by positron emission tomography. Journal of Neuroscience 11:2383–2402. [JG, JJ, arMIP]Google Scholar
Corbetta, M., Miezin, F. M., Shulman, G. L., Petersen, S. E. (1993) A PET study of visuospatial attention. Journal of Neuroscience, 13(3):1202–26. [JG, rMIP]Google Scholar
Coslett, H. B., Schwartz, M. F., Goldberg, G., Haas, D. & Perkins, J. (1993) Multimodal hemispatial deficits after left hemispheric stroke: A disorder of attention? Brain 116:527–54. [GG]Google Scholar
Crick, F. H. C.(1994) The astonishing hypothesis. Simon and Schuster. [RC, rMIP]Google Scholar
Crick, F. & Jones, E. (1993) The backwardness of human neuroanatomy. Nature 361:109–10. [NK]Google Scholar
Dalenoort, G. J. (1990) Towards a general theory of representation. Psychological Research 52:229–37. [GJD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Damasio, A. R. & Anderson, S. W. (1993) The frontal lobes. In: Clinical Neuropsychology, ed. Heitman, K. M. & Valenstein, E.. Oxford University Press. [PTF]Google Scholar
Damasio, H. & Damasio, A. R. (1989) Lesion Analysis in Neuropsychology, Oxford University Press. [PTF]Google Scholar
Dehaene, S. (in press) The organization of brain activations in number comparison: Event-related potentials and the additive-factors method. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Dehaene, S. & Changeux, J.-P. (1991) The Wisconsin card sorting test: Theoretical analysis and modeling in a neuronal network. Cerebral Cortex 1(1):62–79. [JG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dehaene, S., Posner, M. I. & Tucker, D. M. (1994). Localization of a neural system for error detection and compensation. Psychological Science 5:303–5. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Deiber, M.-P., Passingham, R. E., Colebatch, J. G., Friston, K. J., Nixon, P. D. & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991) Cortical areas and the selection of movement: A study with positron emission tomography. Experimental Brain Research 84:393–402. [JG]Google Scholar
Déjerine, J. (1892) Contribution à I'étude anatomoclinique et clinique des difféientes variété de cécité verbale. Méanoires de la Socéité de Biologie 4:61–90. [KAP]Google Scholar
Démonet, J.-F., Wise, R. & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1993) Language functions explored in normal subjects by positron emission tomography: A critical review. Human Brain Mapping, 1:39–47. [DP, NK]Google Scholar
Dimond, B. J. & Farrington, J. (1977) Emotional response to films shown to the right or the left hemisphere of the brain by heart rate. Ada Psychologica 41:255–60. [UF]Google Scholar
DiPiero, V., Chollet, F. M., MacCarthy, P., Lenzi, G. L., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1992) Motor recovery after acute ischaemic stroke: A metabolic study. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 55:990–56. [GG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dolan, R. J., Bench, C. J., Liddle, P. F. et al. (1993) Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex dysfunction in the major psychoses; symptom or disease specificity. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 56:1290–94. [CDF]Google Scholar
Donald, M. (1983) Neural selectivity in auditory attention: Sketch of a theory. In: Tutorials in event-related potential research: Endogenous components, ed. Gaillard, A. W. & Ritter, W.. North-Holland. [MD]Google Scholar
Donald, M. (1991) Origins of the modern mind. Harvard University Press. [MD]Google Scholar
Donald, M. (1993a) What we were, what we are becoming: Cognitive evolution. Social Research 60:143–70. [MD]Google Scholar
Donald, M. (1993b) Précis and multiple review of Origins of the modern mind. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16:737–48. [MD]Google Scholar
Donald, M. (1993c) Review of J. Foster's The immaterial self: A defense of the Cartesian dualist conception of the mind. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 29:253–55. [MD]Google Scholar
Donald, M. (in press) The ncurobiology of human conciousness: An evolutionary approach. Ncuropsychologia. [MD]Google Scholar
Donders, F. C. (1969) On the speed of mental processes. Acta Psychologica 30:412–31. [RC]Google Scholar
Drevets, W. C., Burton, H., Videen, T. O., Snyder, A. Z., Simpson, J. R. & Raichle, M. E. (1995) Blood flow changes in human somatosensory cortices during anticipated stimulation. Nature 373:245–252. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Drevets, W. C. & Raichle, M. E. (1992) Neuroanatomical circuits in depression: Implications for treatment. Psychopharm. Bull. 28:26174. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Drevets, W. C., Videen, T. O., Price, J. L., Preskorn, S. H., Carmichael, S. T. & Raichle, M. E. (1992) A functional anatomical study of unipolar depression. Journal of Neuroscience 12:3628–41. [arMIP]Google Scholar
Duncan, J., Ward, R. & Shapiro, K. (1994) Direct measurement of attentional dwell time in human vision. Nature 369(6478):31315. [JKT]Google Scholar
Early, T. S. (1993) Left globus pallidus hyperactivity and right-sided hemineglect in schizophrenia. In: Schizophrenia, ed. Cromwell, R. L. and Snyccr, C. R.. Oxford University Press. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Eccles, J. C. (1972) The understanding of the brain. McGraw-Hill. [RK-F]Google Scholar
Eckhorn, R., Reitboeck, H. J., Amdt, M., & Dicke, P. (1990) Feature linking via synchronization among distributed assemblies: Simulation of results from cat visual cortex. Neural Computation 2:293–307. [ALP]Google Scholar
Edelman, G. M. (1987) Neural Darwinism. Basic Books. [BG]Google Scholar
Edelman, G. M. (1989) The remembered present. Basic Books [GJD, rMIP]Google Scholar
Engel, A. K., Koenig, P., Gray, C. M. & Singer, W. (1990) Synchronization of oscillatory responses: A mechanism for stimulus-dependent assembly formation in cat visual cortex. In: Parallel processing in neural systems and computers, ed. Eckmiller, R. et al. Elsevier. [ALP]Google Scholar
Exner, S. (1984) Entwurf zu einer physiologischen Erklärung der psychischen Erscheinungen. Vienna: Franz Deuticke. [GJD]Google Scholar
Farah, M. J. (1994) Neuropsychological inference with an interactive brain: A critique of the “locality” assumption. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17:43–104. [JJ, rMIP]Google Scholar
Felleman, D. J. & Van Essen, D. C. (1991) Distributed heirarchical processing in primate cerebral cortex. Cerebral Cortex 1:1–47. [BH]Google Scholar
Fidelman, U. (1991) Experimental testing of constructivism and related theories. Behavioral Science 36:274–97. [UF]Google Scholar
Fidelman, U. (1994) A misleading implication of the metabolism scans of the brain. The International Journal of Neuroscience 74:105–108. [UF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fidelman, U. & Thimor, J. (1993) Hemispheres relation for bottom-up and top-down concept-maps construction. Proceedings of the Third International Seminar on Misconceptions in Science and Math. Cornell University Press. [UF]Google Scholar
Fiez, J. A., Tallal, P., Raichle, M. E., Miezin, F. M., Katz, W. F., Dobmeyer, S. & Petersen, S. E. (in press) PET studies of auditory and phonological processing: Effects of stimulus type and task conditions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Fox, P. T. & Applegate, C. N. (1988) Right-hemispheric dominance for somatosensory processing in humans. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 14:760. [PTF]Google Scholar
Fox, P. T., Fox, J. M., Raichle, M. E. & Burde, R. M. (1985) The role of the cerebral cortex in the generation of voluntary saccades: A positron emission tomographic study. Journal of Neurophysiology 54(2):348–69. [JC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, P. T., Fox, J. M., Raichle, M. E. & Burde, R. M. (1985) The role of cerebral cortex in the generation of saccadic eye movements: A positron emission tomographic study. Journal of Neurophysiology 52:348–68. [PTF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, P. T., Miezin, F. M., Allman, J. M., Van Essen, D. C., Raichle, M. E. et al. (1987) Retinotopic organization of human visual cortex mapped with positron emission tomography. Journal of Neuroscience 7:919–22. [aMIP]Google Scholar
Fox, P. T., Mikiten, S., Davis, G. & Lancaster, J. L. (1994) BrainMap: A Database of human functional brain mapping. In: Functional Neuroimaging Technical Foundations, ed. Thatcher, R. W., Hallet, M., Zeffiro, T., John, E. R. & Huerta, M.. Academic Press. [PTF]Google Scholar
Fox, P. T., Pardo, J. V., Petersen, S. E. & Raichle, M. E. (1987) Supplementary motor and premotor responses to actual and imagined hand movements. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 13:1433. [PTF]Google Scholar
Fox, P. T., Petersen, S. E., Posner, M. I. & Raichle, M. E. (1988) Is Broca's area language specific? Neurology 38 (Suppl. 1):172. [PTF]Google Scholar
Frackowiak, R. (1994) Functional mapping of verbal memory and language. Trends in Neurosdences 17(3):109–115. [DP]Google Scholar
Frackowiak, R., Weiller, C. & Chollet, F. (1991) The functional anatomy of recovery from brain injury. In: Exploring brain functional anatomy with positron tomography (CiBA Foundation Symposium 163), ed. Chadwick, D. J. & Whelan, J.. Wiley. [GG]Google Scholar
Freides, D. (1974) Human information processing and sensory modality: Cross-model functions, information complexity memory, and deficit. Psychological Bulletin 81:284–310. [DF]Google Scholar
Freides, D., Tupler, L. A., Hall, J. M. & Fowler, T. E. (1988) On the independence of physical and nominal codes: A correlational analysis. Brain and Cognition 8:409–20. [DF]Google Scholar
Friston, K. J., Frith, C. D., Liddle, P. F., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991) Investigating a network model of word generation with positron emission tomography. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 244:101–6. [JG, AMJ]Google Scholar
Friston, K. J., Frith, C. D., Liddle, P. F., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1993) Functional connectivity: The principal-component analysis of large (PET) data sets. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 13:5–14. [BH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frith, C. D. (1992) The cognitive neuropsychology of schizophrenia. Erlbaum. [CDF]Google Scholar
Frith, C. D., Friston, K. J., Liddle, P. F. & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991a) A PET Study of Word Finding. Neuropsychologia 29:1137–48. [PTF, JG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frith, C. D., Friston, K. J., Liddle, P. F. & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991b) Willed action and the prefrontal cortex in man: A study with PET. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 244:241–46. [JG]Google Scholar
Gaffan, D. (1992) The role of the hippocampus-fornix-mammillary system in episodic memory. In: Neuropsychology of Memory, 2nd edition, ed. Squire, L. R. & Butters, N.. Guilford Press. [SMO]Google Scholar
Gehring, W. J., Goss, B., Coles, M. G. H., Meyer, D. E. & Donchin, E. (1993) A neural system for error detection and compensation. Psychological Science, 4:385–90. [rMIP]Google Scholar
George, M. S., Ketter, T. A., Parekh, P. I., Rosinsky, N., Ring, H., Casey, B. J., Trimble, M. R., Horwitz, B., Herscovitch, P. & Post, R. M. (1994) Regional brain activity when selecting a response despite interference: An H213O PET study of the Stroop and emotional Stroop. Human Brain Mapping 1:194–209. [JG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilson, E. J. (1984) Development of knowledge about intermodal unity: Two views. In: Piaget and the foundations of knowledge, ed. Liben, L. S.. Erlbaum. [DF]Google Scholar
Goertzel, B. (1994) Chaotic logic: Language, thought and reality from the perspective of complex systems science. Plenum Press. [BG]Google Scholar
Goldberg, G. (1987) Front intent to action: Evolution and function of the premotor systems of the frontal lobe. In: The frontal lobes revisited, ed. Perecman, E.. Erlbaum. [GG]Google Scholar
Goldberg, G. (1991) Microgenetic theory and the dual premotor systems hypothesis. Implications for rehabilitation of the brain-damaged subject. In: Cognitive microgenesis: A neuropsychological perspective, ed. Hanlon, R. E.. Springer-Verlag. [GG]Google Scholar
Goldberg, G. (1992) Premotor systems, attention to action and behavioural choice. In: Neurobiology of motor programme selection: New approaches to the study of behavioural choice, ed. Kien, J., McCrohan, C. R. & Winlow, W.. Pergamon Press. [GG]Google Scholar
Goldberg, G. & Bloom, K. K. (1990) The alien hand sign: Localization, lateralization and recovery. American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 69:228–38. [GG]Google Scholar
Goldberg, G., Mayer, N. H. & Toglia, J. U. (1981) Medial frontal cortex infarction and the alien hand sign. Archives of Neurology 38:683–88. [GG]Google Scholar
Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1987). Circuitry of primate prefrontal cortex and regulation of behavior by representational memory. In: Handbook of Physiology, vol. 5. [JJ]Google Scholar
Grafman, J. (1989) Plans, actions, and mental sets: Managerial knowledge units in the frontal lobes. In: Integrating theory and practice in clinical neuropsychology, ed. Perecman, E.. Erlbaum. [JG]Google Scholar
Grafman, J. (1994a) Alternative frameworks for the conceptualization of prefrontal lobe functions. In: Handbook of neuropsychology, ed. Boiler, F. & Grafman, J.. Elsevier. [JG]Google Scholar
Grafman, J. (1994b) Neuropsychology of higher cognitive processes. In: Handbook of perception and cognition, ed. Zaidel, D.. Academic Press. [JG]Google Scholar
Grafman, J. & Hendler, J. (1991) Planning and the brain. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14, 563–64. [JG]Google Scholar
Grafman, J., Jonas, B. & Salazar, A. (1990) Wisconsin card sorting test performance based on location and size of neuroanatomical lesion in Vietnam veterans with penetrating head injury. Perceptual Motor Skills 71(3 Pt. 2):1120–22. [JG]Google Scholar
Grafman, J., Sirigu, A., Spector, L., & Hendler, J. (1993) Damage to the prefrontal cortex leads to decomposition of structured event complexes. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 8(1):73–87. [JG]Google Scholar
Grafman, J., Thompson, K., Weingartner, H., Martinez, R., Lawlor, B. A. & Sunderland, T. (1991) Script generation as an indicator of knowledge representation in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Brain Language 40(3):344–58. [JG]Google Scholar
Grafman, J. & Weingartner, H. (in press) A combinatorial binding and strength (CBS) model of memory: Is it a better framework for amnesia? In: Basic and applied memory research: Theory in context, ed. Herrmann, D., Johnson, M., McEvoy, C., Hertzog, C. & Hertel, P.. Erlbaum. [JG]Google Scholar
Grafton, S. T., Mazziotta, J. C., Presty, S., Friston, K. J., Frackowiak, R. S. J. & Phelps, M. E. (1992) Functional anatomy of human procedural learning determined with regional cerebral blood flow and PET. Journal of Neurosdence 12(7):2542–48. [JG]Google Scholar
Grafton, S. T., Woods, R. P. & Mazziotta, J. C. (1993) Within arm somatotopy in human motor areas determined by positron emission tomography imaging of cerebral blood flow. Experimental Brain Research 95:172–76. [JG]Google Scholar
Grainger, J. & Jacobs, A. M. (1993) Modeling neighborhood effects in lexical decision. Paper presented at the 34th annual meeting of The Psychonomic Society, Washington, DC. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Grainger, J. & Jacobs, A. M. (1994) A dual read-out model of word context in letter perception: Further investigations of the word superiority effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 20(6):1158–76. [AMJJ]Google Scholar
Grasby, P. M., Frith, C. D., Friston, K. J., Bench, C., Frackowiak, R. S. J. & Dolan, R. J. (1993) Functional mapping of brain areas implicated in auditory-verbal memory function. Brain 116:1–20. [NK, KAP]Google Scholar
Gray, C. M., Koenig, P., Engel, A. K. & Singer, W. (1989) Oscillatory responses in cat visual cortex exhibit inter-columnar synchronization which reflects global stimulus properties. Nature 338:334–37. [ALP]Google Scholar
Grossenbacher, P. G., Compton, P. E., Posner, M. I. & Tucker, D. M. (1991) Combining isolahle physical and semantic codes: A cogntive-anatomical analysis. Paper presented to the Psychonomics Society, San Francisco. [aMIP]Google Scholar
Grossman, S. P. (1967) A textbook of physiological psychology. Wiley. [GMB]Google Scholar
Haier, R. J., Siegel, B. V., Neuchterlein, K. H., Hazlett, E., Wu, J. C., Paek, J., Browning, H. L. & Buchsbaum, M. S. (1988) Cortical glucose metabolic rate correlates of abstract reasoning and attention studied with positronic emission tomography. Intelligence 12:199–217. [UF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halgren, E., Baudena, P., Clarke, J. M., Heit, G., Ligeois-Chauvel, C., Chauvel, P. & Musolino, A. (in press) Intracerebral potentials to rare target and distractor auditory and visual stimuli: I. Superior temporal plane and parietal lobe. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology. [EH]Google Scholar
Halgren, E., Baudena, P., Clarke, J. M., Heit, G., Marinkovic, K., Devaux, B., Vignal, J. P. & Biraben, A. (in press) Intracerebral potentials to rare target and distractor auditory and visual stimuli: 2. Medial, lateral and posterior temporal lobe. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology. [EH]Google Scholar
Halgren, E., Baudena, P., Heit, G., Clarke, J. M. & Marinkovic, K. (1994) Spatio-temporal stages in face and word processing: 1. Depth-recorded potentials in the human occipital, temporal and parietal lobes. Journal of Physiology (France) 88:1–50. [EH, rMIP]Google Scholar
Halgren, E., Baudena, P., Heit, G., Clarke, J. M., Marinkovic, K. & Chauvel, P. (1994) Spatio-temporal stages in face and word processing: 2. Depth-recorded potentials in the human frontal and Rolandic cortices. Journal of Physiology (France) 88:51–80. [EH]Google Scholar
Harman, C. (1994) The interaction of distress and attention in early infancy. Unpublished dissertation, University of Oregon. [aMIP]Google Scholar
Haxby, J. V., Grady, C. L., Horwitz, B., Salerno, J., Ungerleider, L. G., Mishkin, M., Shapiro, M. B. & Rapaport, S. I. (1993) Dissociation of object and spatial visual processing pathways in human extrastriate cortex. In: Functional organisation of the human visual cortex, ed. Gulyas, B., Ottoson, D. & Roland, P. E.. Pergamon Press. [EH]Google Scholar
Haxby, J. V., Horwitz, B., Maisog, J. M., Ungerleider, L. G., Mishkin, M., Schapiro, M. B., Rapoport, S. I. & Grady, C. L. (1993) Frontal and temporal participation in long-term recognition memory for faces: A PET rCBF activation study. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 13(Supplement 1):S499. [JG]Google Scholar
Hebb, D. O. (1949) The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory. Wiley. [GJD, MD, aMIP]Google Scholar
Heit, G., Smith, M. E. & Halgren, E. (1988) Neural encoding of individual words and faces by the human hippocampus and amygdala. Nature 333, 773–75. [SMO]Google Scholar
Horgan, J. (1994) Can science explain consciousness? Scientific American 271:88–94. [GMB]Google Scholar
Horwitz, B., Grady, C. L., Haxby, J. V., Ungerleider, L. G., Schapiro, M. B., Mishkin, M. & Rapoport, S. I. (1992) Functional associations among human posterior extrastriate brain regions during object and spatial vision. Journal of Cognitive Neurosdence 4:311–22. [BH]Google Scholar
Horwitz, B. & Sporns, O. (in press) Neural modeling and functional neuroimaging. Human Brain Mapping. [BH]Google Scholar
Howard, D., Patterson, K., Wise, R., Brown, W. D., Friston, K., Weiller, C. & Frackowiak, R. (1992) The cortical localization of the lexicons: Positron emission tomography evidence. Brain 115:1769–82. [rMIP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hubel, D. H. (1981) Eye, brain and vision. Scientific American Library (Freeman). [aMIP]Google Scholar
Ingber, L. (1982) Statistical mechanics of neocortical interactions: 1. Basic formulation. Physica D 5:83–107. [LI]Google Scholar
Ingber, L. (1983) Statistical mechanics of neocortical interactions: Dynamics of synaptic modification. Physical Review A 28:395–416. [LI]Google Scholar
Ingber, L. (1984) Statistical mechanics of neocortical interactions: Derivation of shortterm-memory capacity. Physical Review A 29:3346–58. [LI]Google Scholar
Ingber, L. (1991) Statistical mechanics of neocortical interactions: A scaling paradigm applied to electroencephalography. Physical Review A 44:4017–60. [LI]Google Scholar
Ingber, L. (1994) Statistical mechanics of neocortical interactions: Path-integral evolution of short-term memory. Physical Review E 49:4652–64. [LI]Google Scholar
Ingber, L. (1995) Statistical mechanics of multiple scales of neocortical interactions. In: Neocortical dynamics and human EEC rhythms, ed. Nunez, P.. Oxford University Press. [LI]Google Scholar
Ingber, L. (in press) Statistical mechanics of neocortical interactions: Multiple scales of EEG. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology. [LI]Google Scholar
Ingber, L. & Nunez, P. L. (1990) Multiple scales of statistical physics of neocortex: Application to electroencephalography. Mathematical and Computer Modelling 13:83–95. [LI]Google Scholar
Ingham, R. J., Fox, P. T. & Costello Ingham, J. (1994) Brain image investigation of the speech of stutterers and nonstutterers. ASHA 36(10):188. [PTF]Google Scholar
Jackson, S., Marrocco, R. & Posner, M. I. (1995) Networks of anatomical areas controlling visual spatial attention. Neural Networks. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Jacobs, A. M. & Grainger, J. (1992) Testing a semi-stochastic variant of the interactive activation model in different word recognition experiments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 18:1174–88. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Jacobs, A. M. (1994) Models of word recognition: Sampling the state of the art. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 20(6):1311–34. [AMJ]Google Scholar
James, W. (1890) Principles of psychology. Holt. [aMIP.NK]Google Scholar
Jenkins, I. H., Brooks, D. J., Nixon, P. D., Frackowiak, R. S. J. & Passingham, R. E. (1994) Motor sequence learning: A study with positron emission tomography. The Journal of Neurosdence 14(6):3775–90. [JG]Google Scholar
Jonides, J. & Mack, R. (1984) On the cost and benefit of cost and benefit. Psychological Bulletin 96:29–44. [DLR]Google Scholar
Jonides, J., Smith, E. E., Koeppe, R. A., Awh, E., Minoshima, S. & Mintun, M. A. (1993). Spatial working memory in humans as revealed by PET. Nature 363:623–25. [JJ]Google Scholar
Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H. & Jessell, T. M. (1991) Principles of neural science, ed. 3. Appleton & Lange. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Kapur, N. (1988) Memory Disorders in Clinical Practice. Butterworths. [NK]Google Scholar
Kapur, N., Friston, K., Young, A., Frith, C. & Frackowiak, R. (in press) Activation of human hippocampal formation during memory for faces: A PET study. Cortex. [NK]Google Scholar
Kapur, S., Craik, F. I. M., Tulving, E., Wilson, A., Houle, S. & Brown, G. M. (1994) Neuroanatomical correlates of encoding in episodic memory: Levels of processing effect. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91:2008–11. [JG, NK]Google Scholar
Kertzman, C. & Robinson, D. L. (1989) Attentional influences on neurons in parietal cortex of the macaque. Society for Neurosdence Abstracts 15:119. [DLR]Google Scholar
Kintsch, W. (1994) The psychology of discourse processing. In: Handbook of psycholinguistics, ed. Gernsbacher, M. A.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Koch, C. (1993) Computational approaches to cognition: The bottom-up view. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 3(2):203–8. [JKT]Google Scholar
Kornhuber, H. H. & Deecke, L. (1965) Hirnpotentialänderungen bei Willkürbewegungen und passien Bewegungen des Menschen: Bereitschaftspotential und reafferente Potentiale. Pflugers Archio 284:1–17. [RK-F]Google Scholar
Levine, D. S. & Prueitt, P. S. (1989) Modeling some effects of frontal lobe damage–Novelty and perseveration. Neural Net. 2,:103–16. [JG]Google Scholar
Levy-Agresti, J. & Sperry, R. W. (1968) Differential perceptual capacities in major and minor hemispheres. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 61:1151. [UF]Google Scholar
Lichtheim, L. (1985) On aphasia. Brain 7:434–84. [aMIP]Google Scholar
Livingstone, M. & Hubel, D. (1988) Segregation of form, color, movement and depth: Anatomy, physiology and perception. Science 240:740–49. [ALP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lnbinski, D. & Thompson, T. (1993) Species and individual differences in communication based on private states. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16:627–80. [CMB]Google Scholar
Luria, A. (1973) Osnowy nejropsichologii. Isdatelstwo Moskwskogo Univorsitcta, Moscow. [RK-F]Google Scholar
Lynch, G. (1976) Some difficulties associated with the use of lesion techniques in the study of memory. In: Neural Mechanisms of Learning and Memory, ed. Rosenzweig, M. R & Bennett, E. L.. MIT Press. [NK]Google Scholar
Mayer, N. H., Reed, E., Schwartz, M. F., Montgomery, M. & Palmer, C. (1990) Buttering a hot cup of coffee: An approach to the study of errors of action in patients with brain damage. In: The neuropsychology of everyday life: Assessment and basic competencies, ed. Tupper, D. E. & Cicerone, K. D.. Kluwer. [GG]Google Scholar
Mayes, A. (1988) Organic Memory Disorders. Cambridge University Press. [NK]Google Scholar
Mazoyer, B., Tzourio, N., Poline, J. B., Petit, L., Levrier, O. & Joliot, M. (1993) Anatomical regions of interest versus stereotactic space: A comparison of two approaches for brain activation maps analysis. In: Quantification of Brain Function: Tracer kinetics and Image Analysis in Brain PET, ed. Uemura, K., Lassen, N., Jones, T. & Kanno, I.. Elsevier. [KAP]Google Scholar
McCarthy, G., Blamire, M. D., Rothman, D. L., Cruetter, R. & Shulman, R. S. (1993) Echo-planar magnetic resonance imaging studies of frontal cortex activation during word generation in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 90:4952–56. [PTF]Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L. & Rumclhart, D. E. (1981) An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Pt. 1. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review 88:375–405. [GJD, AMJ]Google Scholar
McIntosh, A. R., Grady, C. L., Ungerleider, L. G., Haxby, J. V., Rapoport, S. I. & Horwitz, B. (1994) Network analysis of cortical visual pathways mapped with PET. Journal of Neuroscicnce 14:655–66. [BH]Google Scholar
Mesulam, M. M. (1985) Principles of behavioral neurology. F. A. Davis. [aMIP]Google Scholar
Miller, G. A., Calanter, E. & Pribrim, K. H. (1960) Plans and the structure of behavior. Holt. [JG]Google Scholar
Mitz, A. R., Godschalk, M. & Wise, S. (1991) Learning-dependent neuronal activity in the premotor cortex: Activity during the acquisition of conditional motor associations. Journal of Neuroscience 11:1855–1872. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Mohr, J. P., Pressin, M. S., Finkelstein, S., Funkenstein, H. H., Duncan, C. W. & Davis, K. R. (1978) Broca's aphasia: Pathologic and clinical neurology 28:311–24. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Moran, J. & Desimone, R. (1985) Selective attention gates visual processing in the extrastriate cortex. Science 229:782–84. [rMIP, JKT]Google Scholar
Motter, B. (1993) Focal attention produces spatially selective processing in visual cortical areas V1, V2 and V4 in the presence of competing stimuli. Journal of Ncurophysiology 70(3):909–19. [JKT]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1967) Cognitive psychology. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [JJ]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1985) The role of invariant structure in the control of movement. In: Goal directed behavior: The concept of action in psychology, ed. Frese, M. & Sabini, J.. Erlbaum. [DF]Google Scholar
Newell, A., Shaw, J. C. & Simon, J. A. (1958) Elements of a theory of problem solving. Psychological Review 65:151–66. [aMIP]Google Scholar
Nichelli, P., Grafman, J., Pietrini, P., Alway, D., Carton, J. C. & Miletich, R. (1994) Brain activity in chess playing [letter]. Nature 369(6477):191. [JG]Google Scholar
Nobre, A. C., Allison, T. & McCarthy, G. (1994) Word recognition in the human inferior temporal lobe. Nature 372:260–63. [KAP]Google Scholar
Nombre, A. C., Alison, T. & McCarthy, G. (in press) Word recognition in the inferior temporal lobe. Nature. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Nunez, P. L. (1981) Electric fields of the brain: The neurophysics of EEG. Oxford University Press. [LI]Google Scholar
Nunez, P. L. & Pilgreen, K. L. (1991) The spline-Laplacian in clinical neurophysiology: A method to improve EEC spatial resolution. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 8:397–413. [LI]Google Scholar
Obler, L. & Fein, D. (1988) The exceptional brain: Neuropsychology of talent and special abilities. Guilford Press. [RH]Google Scholar
O'Mara, S. M. (in press) Spatially selective firing properties of hippocampal formation neurons in rodents and primates. Progress in Neurobiology. [SMO]Google Scholar
O'Mara, S. M. & Walsh, V., eds. (1994) The Cognitive Neuropsychology of Attention. Erlbaum. [SMO]Google Scholar
Paller, K. A. & Kutas, M. (1992) Brain potentials during memory retrieval provide neurophysiological support for the distinction between conscious recollection and priming. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 4:376–91. [KAP]Google Scholar
Paller, K. A., Kutas, M. & McIsaac, H. K. (in preparation) An electrophysiological measure of priming of visual word-form. [KAP]Google Scholar
Paller, K. A. (1995) Monitoring conscious recollection via the electrical activity of the brain. Psychological Science. 6. [KAP]Google Scholar
Pardo, J. V. & Fox, P. T. (1993) Preoperative assessment of the cerebral hemispheric dominanace for language with CBF PET. Human Brain Mapping 1:57–68. [PTF, aMIP]Google Scholar
Pardo, J. V., Fox, P. T., Raichle, M. E. (1991) Localization of a human system for sustained attention by positron emission tomography. Nature 349(301):61–64. [JG]Google Scholar
Pardo, J. V., Pardo, P. J., Janer, K. W. & Raichle, M. E. (1990) The anterior cingulate cortex mediates processing selection in the Strrop attentional conflict paradigm. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 87:256–59. [JG]Google Scholar
Parkin, A. J. & Leng, N. (1993) Neuropsychology of the amnesic syndrome. Erlbaum. [NK]Google Scholar
Parsons, L. M., Fox, P. T., Downs, J. H., Glass, T., Hirsch, T., Martin, C., Jerabek, P. & Lancaster, J. L. (1994) Implicit movement enables discrimination of visual object shape: Evidence from PET studies. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 20:5. [PTF]Google Scholar
Patterson, K. & Kay, J. (1982) Letter-by-letter reading: Psychological descriptions of a neurological syndrome. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 34A:41141. [KAP]Google Scholar
Paulesu, E., Frith, C. D. & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1993) The neural correlates of the verbal component of working memory. Nature 362:342–45. [PTF]Google Scholar
Paus, T., Petrides, M., Evans, A. C. & Meyer, E. (1993) Role of the human anterior cingulate cortex in the control of oculomotor, manual, and speech responses: A positron emission tomography study. Journal of Neurophysiology 70(2):453–69. [JG]Google Scholar
Penfield, W. & Rasmussen, T. (1950) The Cerebral Cortex of Man. Macmillan. [PTF]Google Scholar
Petersen, S. E., Fox, P. T., Posner, M. I., Mintum, M. & Raichle, M. E. (1988a) Positron emission tomographic studies of the cortical anatomy of single-word processing. Nature 331:585–89. [JG, rMIP]Google Scholar
Petersen, S. E., Fox, P. T., Posner, M. I., Mintum, M. & Raichle, M. E. (1988b) Positron emission tomographic studies of the processing of single words. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 1(2):153–70. [JG]Google Scholar
Petersen, S. E., Fox, P. T., Posner, M. I., Mintum, M. & Raichle, M. E. (1990) Positron emission tomographic studies of the processing of single words. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 1:153–70. [PTF]Google Scholar
Petersen, S. E., Fox, P. T., Snyder, A. Z. & Raichle, M. E. (1990) Activation of prestriate and frontal cortical activity by words and word-like stimuli. Science 249:1041–44. [aMIP, JG]Google Scholar
Petersen, S. E., Robinson, D. L. & Currie, J. N. (1989) Influences of lesions of parietal cortex on visual spatial attention in humans. Experimental Brain Research 76:267–80. [DLR]Google Scholar
Petit, L., Orssaud, C., Tzourio, N., Salamon, G., Mazoyer, B., Berthoz, A. (1993) PET study of voluntary saccadic eye movements in humans: Basal ganglia-thalamocortical system and cingulate cortex involvement. Journal of Neurophysiology 69(4):1009–17. [JG]Google Scholar
Petrides, M., Alivisatos, B., Evans, A. C. & Meyer, E. (1993a) Dissociation of human mid-dorsolateral from posterior dorsolateral frontal cortex in memory processing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 90:873–77. [JG]Google Scholar
Petrides, M., Alivisatos, B., Meyer, E. & Evans, A. C. (1993b) Functional activation of the human frontal cortex during the performance of verbal working memory tasks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 90:878–82. [JG]Google Scholar
Poeppel, D. (1994) A critical review of PET studies of language. MIT Center for Cognitive Science Occasional Paper #49. [DP]Google Scholar
Popper, K. R. (1934/1959) Logik der forschung. Hutchinson. [GJD]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. (1978) Chronometric explorations of mind. Erlbaum. [DF, aMIP]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. (1994) Attention: The mechanism of consciousness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91(16):7398–7402. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. & Raichle, M. E. (1994). Images of Mind. Scientific American Library (Freeman). [GMB, NK, KAP]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. & Snyder, C. R. (1975) Attention and cognitive control. In: Information processing and cognition: The Loyola symposium, ed. Solso, R. L.. Erlbaum. [DLR]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I., Snyder, C. R. or Davidson, B. J. (1980) Attention and detection of signals. Journal of Experimental Psychology 109:160–74. [GJD]Google Scholar
Pribram, K. H. & McGuiness, D. (1975) Arousal, activation and effort in the control of attention. Psychological Review 82:116. [GJES]Google Scholar
Putnam, H. (1988) Representation and reality. MIT Press. [ALP]Google Scholar
Quine, W. V. O. (1987) Quiddities. An intermittently philosophical dictionary. Harvard University Press. [ALP]Google Scholar
Raichle, M. E. (1987) Circulatory and metabolic correlates of brain function in normal humans. In: Handbook of Physiology, vol. 5, ed. Plum, F.. Oxford University Press. [aMIP]Google Scholar
Raichle, M. E., Fiez, J. A., Videen, T. O., MacLeon, A. K., Pardo, J. V., Fox, P. T. & Petersen, S. E. (1994) Practice-related changes in human brain functional anatomy during non-motor learning. Cerebral Cortex 4:8–26. [PTF, GG, JG, rMIP]Google Scholar
Raichle, M. E., Larson, K. B., Markham, J. & Powers, W. J. (1993) Progress Report No. 27. Washington University Biomedical Computer Laboratory. [LI]Google Scholar
Rakover, S. S. (1990) Metapsychology: Missing links in behavior, mind, and science. Solomon Press. [GMB]Google Scholar
Rakover, S. S. (1993) Précis of metapsychology: Missing links in behavior, mind, and science. Psycoloquy 4(55) Metapsychology. 1.Rakover. [GMB]Google Scholar
Robinson, D. L., Bowman, E. M. & Kertzman, C. (1991) Covert orienting of attention in the macaque: 2. A signal in parietal cortex to disengage attention. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 17:442. [DLR]Google Scholar
Roland, P. E. (1993) Brain Activation. Wiley-Liss. [NK, RK-F, JKT]Google Scholar
Rolls, E. T. & O'Mara, S. M. (1993) Neurophysiological and theoretical analysis of how the primate hippocampus functions in memory. In: Brain Mechanisms of Perception: From Neuron to Behaviour, ed. Ono, T., Squire, L. R., Raichle, M. E., Perrett, D. I. & Fukuda, M.. Oxford University Press. [SMO]Google Scholar
Rose, S. (1992) The Making of Memory. Bantam Press. [NK]Google Scholar
Roskies, A. L. (1994) Mapping memory with positron emission tomography. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91:1989–91. [NK]Google Scholar
Ross, E. D. (1985) Modulation of affect and nonverbal communication by the right hemisphere. In: Principles of Behavioral Neurology, ed. Mesulam, M.. Davis. [PTF]Google Scholar
Roy, C. S. & Sherrington, C. S. (1890) On the regulation of the blood supply of the brain. Journal of Physiology 11:85–109. [JJ]Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E. (1975) Notes on a schema for stories. In: Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science, ed. Bobrow, D. G. & Collins, A.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Sagi, D. & Julesz, B. (1985) “Where” and “what” in vision. Science 228:1217–19. [JKT]Google Scholar
Salmelin, R., Hari, R., Lounasmaa, O. & Sams, M. (1994) Dynamics of brain activation during picture naming. Nature 368:463–65. [RH]Google Scholar
Schank, R. (1982) Dynamic memory: A theory of reminding and learning in computers and people. Cambridge University Press. [JG]Google Scholar
Scherg, M. (1992) Functional imaging and localization of electromagnetic brain activity. Brain Topography 5(2):103–111. [RK-F]Google Scholar
Scherg, M. & Berg, P. (1990) BESA—Brain electrical source analysis handbook. Munich: Max Planck Institute for Psychiatry. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Schwartz, M. F. (1994). Personal communication. [GG]Google Scholar
Schwartz, M. F., Reed, E. S., Montgomery, M., Palmer, C. & Mayer, N. H. (1991) The quantitative description of action disorganization after brain damage: A case study. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 8(5):381–414. [JG]Google Scholar
Sechenov, I. M. (1863) Reflexes of the brain. Translated and reprinted by MIT Press. [aMIP]Google Scholar
Sergent, J. (1994) Brain-imaging studies of cognitive functions. Trends in Neurosdences 17:221–27. [NK]Google Scholar
Sergent, J., Zuck, E., Lévesque, M. & MacDonald, B. (1992) Positron emission tomography study of letter and object processing: Empirical findings and methodological considerations. Cerebral Cortex 2(1):68–80. [JG]Google Scholar
Shallice, T. (1988) From neuropsychology to mental structure. Cambridge University Press. [JG]Google Scholar
Shallice, T. & Burgess, P. W. (1991) Deficits in strategy application following frontal lobe damage in man. Brain 114:727–41. [JG]Google Scholar
Shallice, T., Fletcher, P., Frith, C. D., Grasby, P., Frackowiak, R. S. & Dolan, R. J. (1994) Brain regions associated with acquisition and retrieval of verbal episodic memory. Nature, 368(04 14):633–35. [JG]Google Scholar
Sherrington, C. (1906/1961) The integrative action of the nervous system. Yale University Press. [aMIP]Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. & Chase, W. G. (1973) Skill in chess. American Scientist 61:394–403. [aMIP]Google Scholar
Sirigu, A., Zalla, T., Pillon, B., Grafman, J., Agid, Y. & Dubois, B. (in press) Selective impairments in managerial knowledge following prefrontal cortex damage. Cortex. [JG]Google Scholar
Skarda, C. A. & Freeman, W. J. (1987) How brains make chaos in order to make sense of the world. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:16195. [ALP]Google Scholar
Snyder, A. Z., Abdullaev, Y., Posner, M. I. & Raichle, M. E. (1995) Scalp electrical potentials reflect regional cerebral blood flow responses during processing of written words. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 92:1689–1693. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Squire, L. R. (1992) Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys and humans. Psychological Review, 99, 195–231. [SMO]Google Scholar
Squire, L. R., Ojemann, J. G., Miezin, F. M., Petersen, S. E., Videen, T. O. & Raichle, M. E. (1992) Activation of the hippocampus in normal humans: A functional anatomical study of memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 89:1837–41. [JC, NK]Google Scholar
Sternberg, S. (1969) The discovery of processing stages: Extensions of Donders. In: Attention and performance 2, ed. Koster, W.G.. Ada Psychologia 30:276–315. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Stimmel, B. (1985) Pain, analgesia and addiction: An approach to the pharmacologic management of pain. The Clinical Journal of Pain 1:14. [GJES]Google Scholar
Talairach, J. & Toumoux, P. (1988) Co-Planar Stereotaxic Atlas of the Human Brain. Thieme. [PTF]Google Scholar
Tanji, J. (1994) The supplementary motor area in the cerebral Curtex. Neuroscience Research 19:251–68. [PTF]Google Scholar
Tanzi, E. (1893) I fatti e le induzioni nell'odierna istologia del sistcma nervosa. Rivista Sperimentale di Freniatria 19:419–72. [GJD]Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1963) On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitscrift fur Tierpsychologie 20:410–33. [GMB]Google Scholar
Tononi, G., Sporns, O. & Edelman, G. M. (1992) Reentry and the problem of integrating multiple cortical areas: Simulation of dynamic integration in the visual system. Cerebral Cortex 2:310–35. [BH]Google Scholar
Tsotsos, J. K. (1989) The complexity of perceptual search tasks. Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Detroit, MI. [JKT]Google Scholar
Tsotsos, J. K. (1990) Analyzing vision at the complexity level. Behavior and Brain Sciences 13(3):423–45. [JKT]Google Scholar
Tsotsos, J. K. (1995) Towards a computational model of visual attention. In: Early vision and beyond, ed. Papathomas, T., Chubb, C., Gorea, A. & Kowler, E.. MIT Press/Bradford Books. [JKT]Google Scholar
Tucker, D. M., Liotti, M., Potts, G., Russell, G. & Posner, M. I. (1994) Spatiotemporal analysis of brain electrical fields. Human Brain Mapping 1:134–52. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Tulving, E., Kapur, S., Craik, F. I. M., Moscovitch, M. & Houle, S. (1994) Hemispheric encoding/retrieval asymmetry in episodic memory: Positron emission tomography findings. Proceedings of the the National Academy of Sciences 2016–20. [rMIP]Google Scholar
Tulving, E., Kapur, S., Markowitsch, H. J., Craik, F. I. M., Habib, R. & Houle, S. (1994) Neuroanatomical correlates of retrieval in episodic memory: Auditory sentence recognition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91:2012–15. [JG, KAP, NP]Google Scholar
Umilta, C. (1988) Orienting of attention. In: Handbook of Neuropsychology, veil. Elsevier. [BG]Google Scholar
Ungerleider, L. G. and Mishkin, M. (1982) Two cortical visual systems. In: Analysis of Visual Behavior, ed. Ingle, D. J., Goodale, M. A. & Mansfield, R. J. W.. MIT Press. [PTF]Google Scholar
Van Orden, G. C., Johnston, J. C. or Hale, B. L. (1988) Word identification in reading proceeds from spelling to sound to meaning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 14:371–85. [AMJ]Google Scholar
von der Marlsburg, C. & Bienenstock, E. (1986) Statistical coding and shortterm synaptic plasticity: A scheme for knowledge representation in the brain. In: Disordered systems and biological organization, NATO ASl Series F20. Springer. [ALP]Google Scholar
von Uexküll, J. (1909/1985) Environment and inner world of animals (trans. C. J. Mellor & D. Gove). In: The foundations of comparative ethology, ed. Burghardt, G. M.. Van Nostrand Reinhold. (Reprint of Umwelt und innenwelt der tiere, 1909. Berlin: Jena.) [GMB]Google Scholar
Warrington, E. K. & Shallice, T. (1980) Word-form dyslexia. Brain 103:99–112. [KAP]Google Scholar
Weber, R. J. & Harish, R. (1974) Visual imagery for words: The Hebb test. Journal of Experimental Psychology 102:409–14. [aMIP]Google Scholar
Weiller, C., Chollet, F., Friston, K. J., Wise, R. J. S. & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1992) Functional reorganization of the brain in recovery from striatocapsular infarction in man. Annals of Neurology 31:463–72. [GG]Google Scholar
Weiller, C., Ramsay, S. C., Wise, R. J. S., Friston, K. J. & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1993) Individual patterns of functional reorganization in the human cerebral cortex after capsular infarction. Annals of Neurology 33:181–89. [GG]Google Scholar
Weisenberg, M., Wolf, Y., Mittwoch, T., Mikulincer, M. & Aviram, O. (1985) Subject versus experimenter control in the reaction to pain. Pain 23:187. [GJES]Google Scholar
Wilson, C. L., Isokawa, M., Babb, T. L., Crandell, P. H., Levesque, M. F. & Engel, J. (1991) Functional connections in the human temporal lobe: 2. Evidence for a loss of functional linkage between contralateral limbic structures. Experimental Brain Research, 85:174–87. [SMO]Google Scholar
Wilson, M. A. & McNaughton, B. L. (1993) Dynamics of the hippocampal ensemble code for space. Science, 261:1055–58. [SMO]Google Scholar
Wise, R., Chollet, F., Hadar, U., Friston, K., Hoffner, E. & Frackowiak, R. (1991) Distribution of cortical neural networks involved in word comprehension and word retrieval. Brain 114:1803–17. [PTF, JG, rMIP]Google Scholar
Zatorre, R. J., Evans, A. C., Meyer, E. & Gjedde, A. (1992) Lateralization of phonetic and pitch discrimination in speech processing. Science 256:846–49. [PTF]Google Scholar
Zeki, S. (1993). A Vision of the Brain. Blackwell. [SMO]Google Scholar
Zeki, S., Watson, J. D. C., Lueck, C. J., Friston, K. J., Kennard, C. or Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991) A direct demonstration of functional specialization in human visual cortex. Journal of Neuroscience 11:641–49. [NK]Google Scholar
Zenz, M. (1991) Morphine myths: Sedation, tolerance, addiction. Postgraduate Medical Journal 67(Supplement 5):S100. [GJES]Google Scholar