Hostname: page-component-54dcc4c588-sq2k7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-09-28T07:41:02.134Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The causes of brain enlargement in human evolution

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 May 2011

Robert Foley
Robert Foley
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3DZ, United Kingdom, Electronic mail: raf10@phx.cam.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'

Information

Type
Open Peer Commentary
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 13 , Issue 2 , June 1990 , pp. 354 - 356
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1990

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abitbol, M. M. (1987) Obstetrics and posture in pelvic anatomy. Journal of Human Evolution 6:243–55. {MMA}Google Scholar
(1989) Variations in blood supply allocations for quadrupedal and for bipedal posture and locomotion. American Journal of Physiological Anthropology 80:239–58. {MMA}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allee, W. C., & Schmidt, K. (1951) Ecological animal geography. Wiley and Sons. {MCab}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altman, J. (1987) A quiet revolution in thinking. Nature 328:572–73. {aDF}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrews, P. J. (1989) Palaeoecology of Laetoli. Journal of Human Evolution 18:173–81. {WHK}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ardrey, R. (1976) The hunting hypothesis. Atheneum. {aDF}Google Scholar
Armstrong, E. (1982) Mosaic evolution in the primate brain: Differences and similarities in the Hominid thalamus. In: Primate brain evolution: Methods and concepts, ed. Armstrong, E. & Falk, D.. {GPB}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1983) Relative brain size and metabolism in mammals. Science 220:1302–04. {rDF, RAB, AW}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aschoff, J., Gunther, B. & Dramer, K. (1971) Energiehaushalt und Temperaurregulation. Urban & Schwartzenbert. {aDF}Google Scholar
Badeer, H. S. (1985) Elementary principles based on modified Bernoulli’s equation. The Physiologist 28:41–46. {aDF}Google ScholarPubMed
(1986) Does gravitational pressure of blood hinder flow to the brain of the giraffe? Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 83:207–11. {aDF}Google Scholar
Baker, M. A. (1979) A brain-cooling system in mammals. Scientific American 240:130–39. {aDF}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(1982) Brain cooling in endotherms in heat and exercise. Annual Review of Physiology 44:85–96. {arDF, WHK}Google Scholar
Barnes, J. (1964) The complete works of Aristotle. The revised Oxford translation, vol. 1, 1984. Princeton University Press. {O-JG}Google Scholar
Bashore, T. R., Martinerie, J. M., Weiser, P. C, Greenspon, L. C. & Heffley, E. F. (1988) Preservation of mental processing speed in aerobically fit older men. Psychobiology 25:433–44. {WMB}Google Scholar
Batson, O. V. (1944) Anatomical problems concerned in the study of cerebral blood flow. Federation Proceedings 3:139–44. {aDF}Google Scholar
Bingham, G. P. (1988) Task-specific devices and the perceptual bottleneck. Human Movement Science 7:225–64. {GPB}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blomquist, C. G., Nixon, J. V., Johnson, R. L. & Mitchell, J. H. (1980) Early cardiovascular adaptation to zero gravity simulated by head-down tilt. Ada Astronautica 7:543–53. {O-JG}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blumenberg, B. & Lloyd, A. T. (1983) Australopithecus and the origin of the genus Homo: Aspects of biometry and systematics with accompanying catalog of tooth metric data. BioSystems 16:127–67. {rDF}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blumenschine, R. J. (1986) Carcass consumption sequences and the archaeological distinction of scavenging and hunting. Journal of Human Evolution 15:639–59. {aDF}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1987) Characteristics of an early hominid scavenging niche. Current Anthropology 28:383–407. {aDF, WHK}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonnefille, R., Vincens, A. & Buchet, G. (1987) Palynology, stratigraphy and paleoenvironment of a Pliocene hominid site (2.9–3.3 M.Y.) at Hadar, Ethiopia. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 60:249–81. {WHK}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bortz, W. M. (1985) Physical exercise as an evolutionary force. Journal of Human Evolution 14:145–55. {aDF, WMB}Google Scholar
Bourliere, F. (1985) Primate communities: Their structure and role in tropical ecosystems. International Journal of Primatology 6(1):1–42. {AZ}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, G. I. (1930) The emissary foramina of the cranium in man and the anthropoids. Journal of Anatomy 65:108–21. {aDF, GLB, AW}Google ScholarPubMed
(1988) The states of human evolution, 3d ed. Prentice-Hall. {CLB}Google Scholar
Brace, C. L. (1979) The stages of human evolution, 2d ed. Prentice-Hall. {CLB}Google Scholar
Brace, C. L. & Montagu, M. F. A. (1965) Mans evolution. Macmillan. {CLB}Google Scholar
Brace, C. L., Smith, S. L. & Hunt, K. D. (in press) What big teeth you had, Grandma! Human tooth size past and present. In: Advances in dental anthropology, ed. Kelley, M. A. & Larsen, C. S., Liss, Alan R.. {CLB}Google Scholar
Brain, C. K. (1958) The Transvaal ape-man-bearing cave deposits. Transvaal Museum Memoir 11. {WHK}Google Scholar
(1988) New information from the Swartkrans cave of relevance to “robust” australopithecines. In: Evolutionary history of the “robust” australopithecines, ed. Grine, F.. Aldine. {aDF}Google Scholar
Braun, J. P. & Tournarde, A. (1977) Venous drainage in the craniocervical region. Neuroradiology 13:155–58. {MCD}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brengelmann, G. L. (1989) Temperature regulation. In: Scientific foundations of sports medicine, ed. Teitz, C. C. & Decker, B. C.. {GLB}Google Scholar
Breschet, G. (1819) Essai sur les veines du rachis. These Medicale, Paris. {MCD}Google Scholar
Brinnel, H., Boy, J. & Cabanac, M. (1986) Intracranial temperature during passive hyperthermia in humans. Brain Research 363:170–73. {HB}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brinnel, H. & Cabanac, M. (1989) Tympanic temperature is a core temperature in humans. Journal of Thermal Biology 14:47–53. {HB}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brinnel, H., Cabanac, M. & Caputa, M. (1989) Effect of face cooling on intracranial temperature in hyperthermic and hypothermic humans. In: Abstracts international symposium of thermal physiology (Tromso). {HB}Google Scholar
Brinnel, H., Cabanac, M. & Hales, J. R. S. (1987) Critical upper levels of body temperature, tissue thermosensitivity, and selective cooling in hyperthermia. In: Heat stress: Physical exxertion and environment, ed. Hales, J. R. S. & Richards, D. A. B.. Elsevier Biomedical Division. {aDF}Google Scholar
Brinnel, H., Friedel, J., Caputa, M., Cabanac, M. & Grosshans, E. (1989) Rosacea: Disturbed defense against brain overrheating. Archives of Dermatological Research 281:66–72. {HB}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brinnel, H., Nagasaka, T. & Cabanac, M. (1987) Enhanced brain protection during passive hyperthermia in humans. European Journal of Applied Physiology 56:540–45. {HB}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Browning, H. (1953) The confluence of dural venous sinuses. American Journal of Anatomy 93:307–29. {arDF, JL}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burton, A. C. (1972) Physiology and biophysics of the circulation. Year Book Medical Publishers. {aDF}Google Scholar
Butler, H. (1957) The development of certain human dural venous sinuses. Journal of Anatomy 91:510–26. {rDF}Google Scholar
(1967) The development of mammalian dural venous sinuses with especial reference to the postglenoid vein. Journal of Anatomy 102:33—56. {rDF}Google Scholar
Byrne, R. W. & Whiten, A. (1988) Machiavellian intelligence. Clarendon Press. {aDF}Google Scholar
Cabanac, M. (1986) Keeping a cool head. News in Physiological Sciences, American Physiological Society 1:41–44. {arDF, MCD, PEW}Google Scholar
(1987) Reply to “Comments on keeping a cool head.” News in Physiological Sciences 2:33–34. {arDF}Google Scholar
Cabanac, M. & Brinnel, H. (1985) Blood flow in the emissary veins of the human head during hyperthermia. European Journal of Applied Physiology 54:172–76. {arDF, HB, MCap, WHK}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(1988) Beards, baldness, and sweat secretion. European Journal of Applied Physiology 58:39–46. {aDF}Google Scholar
Cabanac, M., Brinnel, H. & Mallet, C. (1984) Physiologie humaine: La calvitie est-elle un processus thermoregulateur adaptatif? Comtes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances. Academie des Sciencest. 299:499–502. {aDF, MCab}Google Scholar
Cabanac, M. & Caputa, M. (1979) Natural selective cooling of the human brain: Evidence of its occurrence and magnitude. Journal of Physiology 286:255–64. {WHK}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calvin, W. H. (1982) Did throwing stones shape hominid brain evolution? Ethology and Sociobiology 3:115–24. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1983a) A stone’s throw and its launch window: Timing precision and its implications for language and hominid brains. Journal of Theoretical Biology 104:121–35. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1983b) The throwing madonna: Essays on the brain. McGraw-Hill. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1986a) The great encephalization: Throwing juvenilization, developmental slowing, and maternal mortality roles in prehuman brain enlargement. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 136:9. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1986b) The river that flows uphill: A journey from the big bang to the big brain. Macmillan. {aDF}Google Scholar
Caputa, M. (1981) Selective brain cooling: An important component of thermal physiology. Contributions to Thermal Physiology 32:183–92. {aDF}Google Scholar
Caputa, M. & Cabanac, M. (1988) Precedence of head homoeothermia over trunk homoeothermia in dehydrated men. European Journal of Applied Physiology 57:611–15. {rDF}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caputa, M. J., Perrin, G. & Cabanac, M.. (1978) Physiologie: Encoulement sanguin reversible dans las veine ophtalmique: Mecanisme de refroidissement selectif du cerveau humain. Comtes Redus Hebdomadaires de Seances. Academie des Sciences. Serie D. (PAMS) 287:1011–14. {aDF, HB}Google Scholar
Caro, C. G., Pedley, T. J., Shroter, R. C. & Seed, W. A. (1978) The mechanisms of circulation. Oxford University Press. {aDF}Google Scholar
Carrier, D. R. (1984) The energetic paradox of human running and hominid evolution. Current Anthropology 25:483–95. {aDF, GPB}Google Scholar
Carroll, R. W. (in press) Feeding ecology and use of termites by lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest Reserve of the Central Africa Republic.Mammalia. {AZ}Google Scholar
Chavaillon, J. (1976) Evidence for the practices of early Pleistocene hominids, Shungura Formation, Lower Omo Valley, Ethiopia. In: Earliest man and environments in the Lake Rudolf Basin, ed. Coppens, Y., Howell, F. C., Issac, G. L. & Leakey, R. E. F.. University of Chicago Press. {BS}Google Scholar
Cheney, D., Seyfarth, R. & Smuts, B. (1986) Social relationships and social cognition in nonhuman primates. Science 234:1361–66. {aDF, RF}Google Scholar
Clarke, G. A. (1988) Some thoughts on the black skull: An archeologist’s assessment of WT-17000 (A. boisei) and systematics in human paleontology. American Anthropologist 90:357–71. {aDF}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, R. J. (1988) A new Australopithecus cranium from Sterkfontein and its bearing on the ancestry of Paranthropus. In: Evolutionary history of the “robust” australopithecines, ed. Grine, F.. Aldine. {aDF}Google Scholar
Clark, S. A., Allard, T., Jenkins, W. M. & Merzenich, M. M. (1988) Receptive fields in the body-surface map in adult cortex defined by temporally correlated inputs. Nature 332:444–45. {aDF}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Harvey, P. H. (1980) Primates, brains, and ecology. Journal of Zoology 190:309–23. {RF}Google Scholar
Conroy, G. C. & Vannier, M. W. (1987) Dental development of the Taung skull from computerized tomography. Nature 329:625–27. {rDF}Google Scholar
Conroy, G. C, Vannier, M. W. & Tobias, P. V. (1990) Endocranial features of Australopithecus africanus revealed by 2- and 3-D computed tomography. Science 247: 838–41.Google Scholar
Coppens, Y. (1980) The differences between Australopithecus and Homo: Preliminary conclusions from the Omo Research Expedition’s studies. In: Current argument on early man, ed. Konigsson, L.-K.. Pergamon Press. {BS}Google Scholar
Craigie, E. H. (1938) The comparative anatomy and embryology of the capillary bed of the central nervous system. Research Publications of the Association of Nervous and Mental Diseases 18:3—28. {MMA}Google Scholar
Crelin, E. (1969) Anatomy of the newborn: An atlas. Lea & Febiger. {rDF}Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1871) The origin of species and the descent of man. Random House. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1871)The descent of man and selection in relation to sex, 2 vols. Appleton. {CLB, RF}Google Scholar
Das, A. C. & Hasan, M. (1970) The occipital sinus. Journal of Neurosurgery 33:307–11. {aDF}Google Scholar
Dean, M. C. (1988) Another look at the nose and the functional significance of the face and nasal mucous membrane for cooling the brain in fossil hominids. Journal of Human Evolution 17:715–18. {WHK}Google Scholar
Diamond, M. (1967) Extensive cortical depth measurements and neuron sizen the cortex of environmentally enricheid rat. Journal of Comparative Neurology 31:357–64. {WMB}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1988) Cephalic vascular evolution and development in primates: The stapedial artery and its companion venous sinuses. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Chicago. {rDF}Google Scholar
Dickson, J. A., McKenzie, A. & McLeod, K. (1979) Temperature gradients in pigs during whole-body hyperthermia at 42 degrees C. Journal of Applied Physiology 47:712–17. {GLB}Google Scholar
Dilenge, G. & Perey, B. (1973) An angiographic study of the meningorachidian venous system. Radiology 108:333–37. {aDF, WHK}Google Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. (in press) Functional significance of social grooming in primates. Folia primatologica. {RF}Google Scholar
Dustman, R., Ruhling, R., Russel, E., Shearer, D., Bonekat, H., Shiyeoka, J., Wood, J. & Bradford, D. (1984) Aerobic exercise training and improved neuropsychological function of older individuals. Neurobiology of Aging 5:35–42. {WMB}Google Scholar
Eckenhoff, J. E. (1970) The physiologic significance of the vertebral venous plexus. Surgery, Gynecology, and Obstetrics 131:72–78. {aDF}Google ScholarPubMed
Eckhardt, R. (1986) Hominid evolution. Science 234:11. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1987) Hominid brain expansion: Testable hypothesis needed. Current Anthropology 28:206–7. {KRF}Google Scholar
Eisenberg, j. (1981) The mammalian radiations: An analysis of trends in evolution, adapatation, and behaviour. Athlone Press. {RF}Google Scholar
Elgar, M. A. & Harvey, P. H. (1987) Basal metabolic rates in mammals: Allometry, phylogeny, and ecology. Functional ecology 1:25–36. {AW}Google Scholar
Epstein, H. M., Linde, H. W., Crampton, A. R., Ciric, I. S. & Eckenhoff, J. E. (1970) The vertebral venous plexus as a major cerebral venous outflow tract. Anesthesiology 32:332–37. {aDF, WHK}Google Scholar
Falk, D. (1980a) Hominid brain evolution: The approach from paleoneurology. Yearbook of’Physical Anthropology 23:93–107. {arDF, RLH}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1980b) Language, handedness, and primate brains: Did the australopithecines sign? American Anthropologist 82:72–78. {aDF}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1983) Cerebral cortices of East African early hominids. Science 221:1072–74. {arDF}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1986a) Evolution of cranial blood drainage in hominids: Enlarged occipital/marginal sinuses and emissary foramina. eAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology 70:311–24. {arDF, WHK, AW}Google Scholar
(1986b) Hominid evolution. Science 234:11. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1987a) Brain lateralization in primates. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 30:107–25. {aDF}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1987b) Hominid paleoneurology. Annual Review of Anthropology 16:13–30. {aDF}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1988) Enlarged occipital/marginal sinuses and emissary foramina: Their significance in hominid evolution. In: The evolutionary history of the “robust” australopithecines, ed. Grine, F.. Aldine. {arDF, WHK}Google Scholar
Falk, D. & Conroy, G. (1983) The cranial venous sinus system in Australopithecus afarensis. Nature 306:779–81. {arDF}Google Scholar
Fialkowski, K. R. (1978) Early hominid brain evolution and heat stress: A hypothesis. Studies in Physical Anthropology 4:87–92. {aD, WMB, KRF}Google Scholar
(1986) A mechanism for the origin of the human brain: A hypothesis. Current Anthropology 27:288–90. {aDF, KRF}Google Scholar
(1988) Origin of the human brain as a preadaptation to enhanced cognitive powers. Antropologischer Anzeiger 46:317–25. {KRF}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(in press) Origin of the human brain as a reliability adaptation to heat stress: New facts. Current Anthropology. {KRF}Google Scholar
Fleagle, J. G. (1980) Locomotion and posture. In: Malayan forest primates: Ten years’ study in tropical rain forest, ed. Chivers, D. J.. Plenum Press. {BS}Google Scholar
(1988) Primate adaptation and evolution. Academic Press. {AW}Google Scholar
Foldes-Papp, K. (1975) Vom Felshild zum Alphabet. Die Geschichte der Schrift von ihren fruhesten Vorstufen bis zur modernen lateinischen Schreibschrift. Gondrom-Verlag. {O-JG}Google Scholar
Foley, R. (1984) Early man and the Red Queen. Hominid evolution and community ecology, ed. Foley, R.. Academic Press. {RF}Google Scholar
(1987) Hominid species and stone-tool assemblages: How are they related: Antiquity 61:380–92. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1987) Another unique species: Patterns in human evolutionary ecology. Longman. {RF, PEW}Google Scholar
Fox, J. L. (1984) The brain’s dynamic way of keeping in touch. Science 225:820–21. {aDF}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galaburda, A. M. & Pandya, D. N. (1982) Role of architectonics and connections in the study of primate brain evolution. In: Primate brain evolution: Methods and concepts, ed. Armstrong, E. & Falk, D.. Plenum. {aDF}Google Scholar
Ganong, W. F. (1971) Review of medical physiology. Lange Medical Publications. {aDF}Google Scholar
Gingerich, P. D. (1983) Rates of evolution: Effects of time and temporal scaling. Science 222:159–61. {BHS}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gius, J. A. & Grier, D. H. (1950) Venous adaptation following bilateral radical neck dissection with excision of the jugular veins. Surgery 28:305–21. {arDF}Google Scholar
Gleadow, A. J. W. (1980) Fission track age of the KBS Tuff and associated hominid remains in northern Kenya. Nature 284:225–30. {CLB}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Godfrey, L. & Jacobs, K. H. (1981) Gradual, autocatalytic and punctuational models of hominid brain evolution: A cautionary tale. Journal of Human Evolution 10:254–72. {aDF}Google Scholar
Goetz, R. H. & Keen, E. N. (1957) Some aspects of the cardiovascular system in the giraffe. Angiology 8:542–64. {aDF}Google Scholar
Goodall, J. (1986) The chimpanzees ofGombe. Harvard University Press. {aDF}Google Scholar
Gould, S. I. & Eldridge, N. (1977) Punctuated equilibria: Tempo and mode of evolution reconsidered. Paleobiology 3:115. {O-JG}Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1977a) Bushes and ladders in human evolution. In: ”Ever since Darwin.” Penguin. {RAB}Google Scholar
(1977b) Ontogeny and phylogeny. Harvard University Press. {RAB}Google Scholar
Graf, W. (1959) Patterns of human liver temperature. Ada Physiologica Scandanavica 46:Supplement 160:1–135. {GLB}Google Scholar
Gray, H. (1973) Anatomy of the human body (29th ed.). Lea and Febiger. {aDF}Google Scholar
Grine, F. & Kay, R. (1988) Early hominid diets from quantitative image analysis of dental microwear. Nature 333:765–68. {aDF}Google Scholar
Grine, F. E. (1981) Trophic differences between “gracile” and “robust” australopithecines: A scanning electron microscope analysis of occlusal events. South African Journal of Science 77:203–30. {WHK}Google Scholar
Grine, R. E. (1988) Evolutionary history of the “robust” australopithecines: A summary and historical perspective. In: The evolutionary history of the “robust” australopithecines, ed. Grine, F.. Aldine. {rDF}Google Scholar
Griisser, O.-J. (1982) The phylogenetic development of the human brain. Congres Internationale de Paleontologie Humaine. Resumees des Communications 216. {O-JG}Google Scholar
(1988) Die phylogenetische Hirnentwicklung und die funktionelle Lateralisation der menschlichen Grosshirnrinde. In: Psychiatrie des rechten und linken Gehirns, ed. Oepen, G.. Deutscher Arzte-Verlag. {O-JG}Google Scholar
Griisser, O.-J., Griisser-Cornehls, U., Kirchhoff, N. & Kiefer, R. (1985) Averbal social communication of hominids is phylogenetically older than verbal communication. Some evidence from studies in brain lesioned patients. Abstract Taung Diamond Jubilee International Symposium, Johannesburg, South Africa. {O-JG}Google Scholar
Griisser, O.-J. & Weiss, L. R. (1985) Quantitative models on pylogenetic growth of the hominid brain. In: Hominid evolution: Past, present, and future, ed. Tobias, P. V.. Liss, Alan R.. {MMA, O-JG}Google Scholar
Guyton, A. C. (1986) Textbook of medical physiology. W. B. Saunders. {ARH}Google Scholar
Haldane, J. B. S. (1949) Suggestions as to quantitative measurement of rates of evolution. Evolution 3:51–56. {BHS}Google Scholar
Hargens, A. R., Millard, R. W., Pettersson, K., Johansen, K. & Meyer, J.-U.Google Scholar
(1987) Gravitational haemodynamics and oedema prevention in the giraffe. Nature 329:59–60. {aDF, ARH}Google Scholar
Hartl, D. L. & Clark, A. G. (1989) Principles of population genetics. Sinauer. {rDF}Google Scholar
Harvey, P. H. & Glutton-Brock, T. H. (1985) Life history variation in primates. Evolution 39:559–81. {BHS}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, P. H., Martin, R. D. & Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1986) Life histories in comparative perspective. In: Primate societies, ed. Smuts, B., Chaney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R. W. & Striraker, T. T.. Chicago University Press. {RF}Google Scholar
Hayward, J. N. & Baker, M. A. (1968) Role of cerebral arterial blood in the regulation of brain temperature in the monkey. American Journal of Physiology 215:389–403. {aDF, GLB}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hewes, G. W. (1973) Primate communication and the gestural origin of language. Current Anthropology 14:5–24. {aDF}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, K. (1982) Hunting and human evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 11:521–44. {RF}Google Scholar
Hirata, K., Nagasaka, T. & Sugano, Y. (1978) Effect of alternating respiratory pathway on respiratory capacity and tympanic and forehead skin temperatures during exercise. Japanese Journal of Aerospace and Environmental Medicine 15:8—13. {HB}Google Scholar
Hofman, M. A. (1983) Encephalization in hominids: Evidence for the model of punctuationalism. Brain Behavior and Evolution 22:102–17. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1983) Energy metabolism brain size, and longevity in mammals. Quarterly Review of Biology 58:495–5122. {BHS}Google Scholar
(1989) On the evolution and geometry of the brain in mammals. Progress in Neurobiology 32:137–58. {BLF}Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1975) The role of humman social behavior in the evolution of the brain. 43d James Arthur Lecture, 1973. American Museum of Natural History. {aDF, KRF}Google Scholar
(1980) Within-species brain-body weight variability: A re-examination of the Danish data and other primate species. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 53:109–21. {RLH}Google Scholar
(1981a) The endocast of the Omo L338y-6 juvenile hominid: Gracile or robust Australopithecus? American Journal of Physical Anthropology 54:109–18. {aDF, MCD}Google Scholar
(1981b) Revisiting the South African Taung Australopithecine endocast: The position of the lunate sulcus as determined by the steroplotting technique. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 56:43–58. {CLB}Google Scholar
(1983) Human paleontological evidence relevant to language behavior. Human Neurobiology 2:105–14. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1983) Human brain evolution: A search for units, Models, and synthesis. Canadian Journal of Anthropology 3(2):215–30. {GPB}Google Scholar
(1988) “Robust” australopithecine brain endocasts: Some preliminary observations. In: The evolutionary history of the “robust” australopithecines, ed. Grine, F.. Aldine. {rDF}Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. & Post, D. G. (1982) The relativity of relative brain measures. In: Primate brain evolution: Methods and concepts, ed. Armstrong, E. & Falk, D.. Plenum. {aDF}Google Scholar
Humphrey, N. K. (1976) The social function of intellect. In: Growing points in ethology, ed. Bateson, P. P. G. & Hinde, R. A.. Cambridge University Press. {RF}Google Scholar
Ingvar, D. H. & Risberg, J. (1967) Increase of regional cerebral blood flow. Experimental Brain Research 3:195. {MMA}Google Scholar
Isaac, G. LI. (1976) The activities of early African hominids: A review of archaeological evidence from the time span two and a half to one million years ago. In: Human origins, ed. Isaac, G. L. I. & McCown, E. R.. Benjamin. {CLB}Google Scholar
(1978) The food-sharing behavior of protohuman hominids. Scientific American 238:90–108. {CLB}Google Scholar
Iwabuchi, T., Sobata, E., Ebina, K., Tsubasisaka, H. & Takiguchi, M. (1986) Dural sinus pressure: Various aspects in human brain surgery in children and adults. American Journal of Physiology 250 (Heart and Circulation Physiology 19):H389-H396. {HB}Google Scholar
Jerison, H. J. (1973) Evolution of the brain and intelligence. Academic Press. {aDF, RF}Google Scholar
(1978) Brain intelligence in whales. In: Whales and whaling. Australian Government Publication Service. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1982a) Allometry brain size, cortical surface, and convolutedness. In: Primate brain evolution: Methods and concepts, ed. Armstrong, E. & Falk., D.Plenum. {aDF}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1982b) The evolution of biological intelligence. In: Handbook of human intelligence, ed. Sternberg, R. J.. Cambridge University Press. {HJJ}Google Scholar
(1983) The evolution of the mammalian brain as an information processing system. In: Advances in the study of mammalian behavior, ed. Eisenberg, J. F. & Kleimann, D. G.. American Society of Mammalogists Special Publication 7. {KRF}Google Scholar
(1985) Animal intelligence as encephalization. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (London), 6308:21–35. {HJJ}Google Scholar
Johanson, D. C, Lovejoy, C. O., Kimbel, W. H., White, T. D., Ward, S. C, Bush, M. E., Latimer, B. M. & Coppens, Y. (1982) Morphology of the Pliocene partial hominid skeleton (A.L. 288–1) from the Hadar formation, Ethiopia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 57:403–51. {rDF}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johanson, D. C. & White, T. D. (1979) A systematic assesment of early African hominids. Science 203:321–30. {CLB}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johanson, D. C, White, T. D. & Coppens, Y. (1978) A new species of the genus Australopithecus (Primates: Hominidae) from the Pliocene of eastern Africa. Kirtlandia 28:1–14. {CLB, BS}Google Scholar
Johnson, J. I., Switzer, R. C. & Kirsch, J. A. W. (1982) Phylogeny through brain traits: The distribution of categorizing characters in contemporary mammals. Brain, Behavior, Evolution 20:97–117. {HJJ}Google Scholar
Kaas, J. H. (1988) Development of cortical sensory maps. In: Neurobiology of neocortex, ed. Rakic, P. & Singer, W.. John Wiley & Sons. {aDF}Google Scholar
Kalaria, R. N., & Harik, S. I. (1987) Blood brain barrier monamine oxidase. Journal of Neurochemistry 49:856–64. {WMB}Google Scholar
Kay, R. F. & Grine, R. E. (1988) Tooth morphology, wear, and diet in Australopithecus and Paranthropus from Southern Africa. In: The evolutionary history of the “robust” australopithecines, ed. Grine, F.. Aldine. {rDF}Google Scholar
Kety, S. (1960) The cerebral circulation. In: Handbook of physiology-neurophysiology 3:1751—60, ed. Feld, John. American Physiologic Society, Washington, D.C. {WMB}Google Scholar
Kimbel, W. H. (1984) Variation in the pattern of cranial venous sinuses and hominid phylogeny. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 63:243–63. {arDF, MCD, WHK, JL, BS}Google Scholar
Kleiber, M. (1932) Body size and metabolism. Hilgardia 6:315–53. {BHS}Google Scholar
Kleinerman, J. & Sancette, S. M. (1955) Effect of mild steady-state exercise on cerebral and general hemodynamics of normal untrained subjects. Journal of Clinical Investigation 34:985. {WMB}Google Scholar
Krantz, G. S. (1968) Brain size and hunting ability in earliest man. Current Anthropology 9:450–51. {aDF, WMB}Google Scholar
Kruska, D. (1988) Mammalian domestication and its effect on brain structure and behavior. In: Intelligence and evolutionary biology, ed. Jerison, H. J. & Jerison, I.. Springer-Verlag. {HJJ}Google Scholar
Laitman, J. T. & Reidenberg, J. S. (1988) Advances in understanding the relationship between the skull base and larynx with comments on the origin of speech. Human Evolution 3:99–109. {KRF}Google Scholar
Lande, R. (1979) Quantitative genetic analysis of multivariate evolution, applied to brain: Body size allometry. Evolution 33:402–16. {HJJ}Google Scholar
Leakey, M. D. (1979) Footprints in the ashes of time. National Geographic 155:446–57. {CLB}Google Scholar
(1984) Disclosing the past. Doubleday. {CLB}Google Scholar
Leakey, M. D. & Hay, R. L. (1979) Pliocene footprints in the Laetolil beds at Laetoli, northern Tanzania. Nature 278:317–23. {aDF, CLB}Google Scholar
Lee, P. C. (in press) Comparative ethological approaches in modelling hominid behaviour. Ossa 14. {RF}Google Scholar
Le Gros Clark, W. E. (1970) History of the primates. British Museum (Natural History). {AW}Google Scholar
Lemons, D. E., Chien, S., Crawshaw, L. I., Weinbaum, S. & Jiji, L. M. (1987) Significance of vessel size and type in vascular heat transfer. American Journal of Physiology 253:R128–R135. {GIB}Google Scholar
Lillywhite, H. B. (1987a) Circulatory adaptations of snakes to gravity. American Zoologist 27:81–95. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1987b) Snakes under pressure. Natural History, November:59–67. {aDF}Google Scholar
Linder, H. (1948) Biologie. Metzler-Verlag. {O-JG}Google Scholar
Lovejoy, C O. (1975) Biomechanical perspectives on the lower limb of early hominids. In: Primate functional morphology and evolution, ed. Tuttle, R. H.. Mouton. {BHS}Google Scholar
(1981) The origin of man. Science 211:341–50. {RF, PEW}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macphail, E. M. (1982) Brain and intelligence in vertebrates. Clarendon Press. {RAB}Google Scholar
Marshack, A. (1985) Hierarchical evolution of the human capacity: The Paleolithic evidence. 54th James Arthur Lecture, 1984. American Museum of Natural History. {aDF}Google Scholar
Martin, R. D. (1981) Relative brain size and metabolic rate in terrestrial vertebrates. Nature 293:57–60. {RAB, RF, AW}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(1983) Human brain evolution in an ecological context. James Arthur Lecture on the Evolution of the Human Brain. American Museum of Natural History. {CLB, BHS}Google Scholar
Matsushima, T., Rhoton, A. L., de’Oliveira, E. & Peace, D. (1983) Microsurgical anatomy of the veins of the posterior fossa. Journal of Neurosurgery 59:63–105. {MCD}Google Scholar
Mayr, E. (1970) Population, species, and evolution. Harvard University Press. {KRF}Google Scholar
McDougall, I., Maier, R., Sutherland-Hawkes, P. & Gleadow, A. J. W. (1980) K-Ar age estimate for the KBS Tuff, East Turkana, Kenya. Nature 284:230–34. {CLB}Google Scholar
McNab, B. K. & Eisenberg, J. F. (1989) Brain size and its relation to the rate of metabolism in mammals. American Naturalist 133:157–67. {AW}Google Scholar
Mettler, F. A. (1955) Culture and the structural evolution of the neural system. James Arthur Lecture on the Evolution of the Human Brain. American Museum of Natural History. {BHS}Google Scholar
Milton, K. (1988) Foraging behaviour and the evolution of primate intelligence. In: Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and humans, ed. Byrne, R. W. & Whiten, A.. Clarendon Press. {AW}Google Scholar
Milvy, P. (1977) The marathon: Physiological, medical, epidemiological, and psychological studies. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 301. {GLB}Google Scholar
Mitchell, D., Labum, H. P., Nijland, M. J. M., Zurovsky, Y. & Mitchell, G. (1987) Selective brain cooling and survival. South African Journal of Science 83:598–604. {PEW}Google Scholar
Nadel, E. R. (1987) Comments on “Keeping a cool head.” News in Physiological Sciences 2:33. {aDF}Google Scholar
Nagasaka, T., Brinnel, H., Hirata, K., Noda, Y. & Sugimoto, N. (1989) Increase in venous flow through ophtalmic veins enhances selective brain cooling in hyperthermic humans. In: Proceeding of the International Symposium of Thermal Physiology Trornso. {HB}Google Scholar
Narebski, J. (1985) Human brain homeothermy during sleep and wakefulness: An experimental and comparative approach. Ada Neurobiologiae Experimental. 45:63–75. {MCap}Google Scholar
Neilsen, K. C. & Owman, C. (1967) Adrenergic innervation of pial arteries related to the circle of Willis in the cat brain. Research 6:773–76. {WMB}Google Scholar
Newman, R. W. (1970) Why man is such a sweaty and thirsty naked animal: A speculative review. Human Biology 42:12–27. {aDF}Google Scholar
Ojemann, G. A. (1983) Brain organization for language from the perspective of electrical stimulation mapping. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6:189–230. {aDF}Google Scholar
Olivier, G. (1972) Capacite cranienne, langage articule et definition du genre Homo. Comtes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de le Academie des Sciences. Series D. Sciences Naturelles 274:1469–72. {aDF}Google Scholar
Olson, T. R. (1981) Basicranial morphology of the extant hominoids and Pliocene hominids: The new material from the Hadar formation, Ethiopia, and its significance in early human evolution and taxonomy. In: Aspects of human evolution, ed. Stringer, C. B.. Taylor & Francis. {arDF}Google Scholar
Padget, D. H. (1956) The cranial venous system in man in reference to development, adult configuration and relations to arteries. American Journal of Anatomy 98:307–55. {rDF}Google Scholar
(1957) The development of the cranial venous system in man, from the viewpoint of comparative anatomy. Contributions to Embryology 36:79–140. {aDF, WHK}Google Scholar
Pagel, M. D. & Harvey, P. H. (1988) How mammals produce large-brained offspring. Evolution 42:948–57. {AW}Google Scholar
(1989) Taxonomic differences in the scaling of brain on body weight among mammals. Science 244:1589–93. {CLB}Google Scholar
Passingham, R. E. (1973) Anatomical differences between the cortex of man and other primates. Brain, Behavior, Evolution 7:337–59. {RLH}Google Scholar
(1975a) Changes in the size and organization of the brain in man and his ancestors. Brain, Behavior, Evolution 11:73–90. {RLH}Google Scholar
(1975b) The brain and intelligence. Brain Behavior and Evolution 11:1—15. {aDF}Google Scholar
Pedley, T. J. (1987) How giraffes prevent oedema. Nature 329:13–14. {aDF}Google Scholar
Penfield, W. & Rasmussen, T. (1950) The cerebral cortex of man: A clinical study of localization of function. Macmillan. {aDF}Google Scholar
Pilbeam, D. (1980) Major trends in human evolution. In: Current argument on early man, ed. Konigsson, L. K.. Pergamon. {CLB}Google Scholar
Platon (1968) Timaios. In: Sdmtliche Werke, vol. 3, 6th ed., ed. E. Loewenthal. {O-JG}Google Scholar
Plotkin, H. C. (1988) Behavior and evolution. In: The role of behavior in evolution, ed. Plotkin, H. C.. MIT Press. {GPB}Google Scholar
Pritchard, J. A., MacDonald, P. C. & Gant, N. F. (1985) Williams obstetrics (16th ed.). Appleton-Century-Crofts. {MMA}Google Scholar
Radinsky, L. B. (1978) Evolution of brain size in carnivores and ungulates. American Naturalist 112:815–31. {aDF, RLH}Google Scholar
(1979) The fossil record of primate brain evolution. 49th James Arthur Lecture. American Museum of Natural History. {aDF}Google Scholar
Raichle, M. E. (1987) Circulatory and metabolic correlates of brain functions in normal humans. In: Handbook of physiology: The nervous system V. American Physiologic Society. {WMB}Google Scholar
Rak, Y. & Howell, F. C. (1978) Cranium of a juvenile Australopithecus boisei from the lower Omo basin, Ethiopia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 48:345–66. {rDF}Google Scholar
Rakic, P. (1988) Specification of cerebral cortical areas. Science 241:170–76. {aDF}Google Scholar
Richards, G. (1986) Freed hands or enslaved feet? A note on the behavioural implications of ground-dwelling bipedalism. Journal of Human Evolution 15:143–50. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1989) Human behavioural evolution: A physiomorphic model. Current Anthropology 30:244–55. {aDF}Google Scholar
Robinson, J. T. (1963) Adaptive radiation in the australopithecines and the origin of man. In: African ecology and human evolution, ed. Howell, F. C. & Bourliere, F.. Aldine. {aDF}Google Scholar
Rockel, A. J., Hioms, R. W. & Powell, T. P. S. (1980) The basic uniformity in structure of the neocortex. Brain 103:221–44. {HJJ}Google Scholar
Rowell, L. B. (1986) Human circulation during physical stress. Oxford University Press. {GLB}Google Scholar
Sacher, G. A. (1959) Relation of lifespan to brain weight and body weight in mammals. In: The lifespan of animals, Ciba Foundation Colloquia on Aging, vol. 5, ed. Wolstenholme, G. E. W. & O’Connor, M.. Churchill. {BHS}Google Scholar
(1978) Longevity aging, and death:An evolutionary perspective. Gerontologist 18:112–19. {BHS}Google Scholar
Sacher, G. A. & Staffeldt, E. (1974) Relation of gestation time to brain weight for placental mammals: Implications for the theory of vertebrate growth. American Naturalist 108:593–616. {BHS}Google Scholar
Sarieh, V. (1971) A molecular approach to the question of human origins. In: Background for man, ed. Sarieh, V. & Dolhinow, P.. Little, Brown. {aDF}Google Scholar
Scharrer, E. (1960) Brain function and the evolution of cerebral vascularisation. James Arthur Lecture on the evolution of the human brain. American Museum of Natural History. {MMA}Google Scholar
Scheibel, A. B., Paul, L. A., Fried, I., Forsythe, A. B., Tomiyasu, U., Wechsler, A., Kao, A. & Slotnick, J. (1985) Dendritic organization of the anterior speech area. Experimental Neurology 87:109–17. {HJJ}Google Scholar
Scheinberg, P. (1975) Cerebral blood flow. In: The nervous system, ed. Tower, D. B.. Raven Press. {MMA}Google Scholar
Scheinberg, P., Blackburn, L. I., Rich, M. & Saslow, M. (1954) Effect of physical exercise on cerebral circulation and metabolism. American Journal of Medicine 16:549–54. {WMB}Google Scholar
Schmidt, R. F. & Thews, H., eds. (1989) tiuman physiology, 2d ed. Springer Press. {O-JG}Google Scholar
Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1979) Animal physiology: Adaptation and environment. Cambridge University Press. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1983) Animal physiology: Adaptation and environment. Cambridge University Press. {MCap}Google Scholar
Senut, B. & Tardieu, C. (1985) Functional aspects of Plio-Pleistocene hominid limb bones: Implications for taxonomy and phylogeny. In: Ancestors: The hard evidence, ed. Delson, E.. Liss, Alan R.. {rDF}Google Scholar
Seymour, R. S. & Johansen, K. (1987) Blood flow uphill and downhill: Does a siphon facilitate circulation above the heart? Comparative Biochemistry & & Physiology 88A: 167–70. {ARH}Google Scholar
Shenkin, H. A., Harmel, M. H. & Kety, S. S. (1948) Dynamic anatomy of the cerebral circulation. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 60:240–52. {MCD}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shipman, P. (1983) Early hominid lifestyle: Hunting and gathering or foraging and scavenging. In: Animals and archaeology. 1. Hunters and their prey, ed. Clutton-Brock, J. & Grigson, C.. BAR International Series 163. {CLB}Google Scholar
(1986) Scavenging or hunting in early hominids: Theoretical framework and tests. American Anthropologist 88:27–43. {CLB}Google Scholar
Shipman, P. & Harris, J. M. (1988) Habitat preference and paleoecology of Australopithecus boisei in Eastern Africa. In: Evolutionary history of the “robust” australopithecines, ed. Grine, F.. Aldine. {aDF, WHK}Google Scholar
Shiraki, K., Sagawa, S., Tajima, F., Yokota, A., Hashimoto, M. & Brengelmann, G. L. (1988) Independence of brain and tympanic temperatures in an unanesthetized human. Journal of Applied Physiology 65:482–86. {arDF, GLB}Google Scholar
Shiu, P. C, Hanafee, W. N., Wilson, G. H. & Rand, R. W. (1968) Cavernous sinus venography. American Journal of Roentgenology, Radium Therapy and Nuclear Medicine 104:57–62. {MCD}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sminia, P., Van der Zee, J., Wondergem, J. & Haveman, J. (1990) A review on the effect of hyperthermia on the central nervous system. Progress in Hyperthermia. {HB}Google Scholar
Smith, B. H. (1989) Dental development as a measure of life history in primates. Evolution 43:683–87. {BHS}Google Scholar
Stern, J. T. & Susman, R. L. (1983) The locomotor anatomy of Australopithecus afarensis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 60:279–317. {aDF}Google Scholar
Stryer, L. (1981) Biochemistry, 2d ed. Freeman Press. {O-JG}Google Scholar
Susman, R. L. (1988) Hand of Paranthropus robustus from Member 1, Swartkrans: Fossil evidence for tool behavior. Science 240:781–84. {aDF, BS}Google Scholar
Taylor, C. R. (1974) Exercise and thermoregulation. In: Environmental Physiology. International Review of Science, Physiology Series I, ed. Robertshaw, D.. Butterworths. {aDF}Google Scholar
Thornton, W. E. & Ord, J. (1977) Physiological mass measurements in Skylab. In: Biomedical results from Skylab, ed. Johnston, R. S. & Dietlein, L. F.. NASA SP-377, Washington, D.C. {O-JG}Google Scholar
Tobias, P. V. (1967) The cranium and maxillary dentition of Australopithecus (Zinjanthropus) boisei. Olduvai Gorge, vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. {arDF, BS}Google Scholar
(1968) The pattern of venous sinus grooves in the robust australopithecines and other fossil and modern hominoids. In: Anthropologie und Humangenetik, ed. Peter, R., Schwartzfischer, F., Glowatzki, G. & Ziegelmayer, G.. Gustav Fischer. {arDF}Google Scholar
(1971) The brain in hominid evolution. Columbia University Press. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1973) Implications of the new age estimates of the early South African hominids. Nature 246:79–83. {rDF}Google Scholar
(1981) The emergence of man in Africa and beyond. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 292:43–56. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1987) The brain of Homo habilis: A new level of organization in cerebral evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 16:741–61. {aDF}Google Scholar
Tobias, P. V. & Falk, D. (1988) Evidence for a dual pattern of cranial venous sinuses on the endocranial cast of Taung (Australopithecus africanus). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 76:309–12. {arDF, WHK}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toth, N. (1985) Archeological evidence for preferential right-handedness in the lower and middle Pleistocene, and its possible implications. Journal of Human Evolution 14:607–14. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1987) The first technology. Scientific American 256:112–21. {CLB}Google Scholar
Trevathan, W. R. (1987) Human birth: An evolutionary perspective. Aldine de Gruyter. {BLF}Google Scholar
Tutin, C. E. G. & Fernandez, M. (1985) Foods consumed by sympatric populations of Gorilla gorilla gorilla and Pan troglodytes troglodytes. International Journal of Primatology 6(1):27–43. {AZ}Google Scholar
Tuttle, R. H. (1985) Ape footprints and Laetoli impressions: A response to the SUNY claims. In: Hominid evolution: Past, present and future, ed. Tobias, P. V.. Liss, Alan R.. {arDF}Google Scholar
(1987) Kinesiological inferences and evolutionary implications from Laetoli bipedal trails G-l, G-2/3, and A. In: Laetoli, a Pliocene site in northern Tanzania, ed. Leakey, M. D. & Harris, J. M.. Clarendon Press. {arDF}Google Scholar
(1988) What’s new in African paleoanthropology? Annual Review of Anthropology 17:391–426. {aDF, WHK}Google Scholar
Van Citters, R. L., Kemper, W. S. & Franklin, D. L. (1968) Blood flow and pressure in the giraffe carotid artery. Comparative Biochemistry 6-Physiology 24:1035–42. {ARH}Google Scholar
Van Valen, L. (1974) Brain size and intelligence in man. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 40:417–24. {aDF, RLH}Google Scholar
Vidal, P. P., Graf, W. & Berthoz, A. (1986) The orientation of the cervical vertebral column in unrestrained awake animals. I. Resting position. Experimental Brain Research 61:549–59. {O-JG}CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
von Neumann, J. (1963) Probabilistic logic and the synthesis of reliable organisms from unreliable components. Collected works, vol. 5. Pergamon Press. {KEF}Google Scholar
Vrba, E. S. (1988) Late Pliocene climatic events and hominid evolution. In: The evolutionary history of the “robust” australopithecines, ed. Grine, F.. Aldine. {rDF, WHK}Google Scholar
Walker, A., Leakey, R. E., Harris, J. M. & Brown, F. H. (1986) 2.5-Myr Australopithecus boisei from west of Lake Turkana, Kenya. Nature 322:517–22. {arDF}Google Scholar
Washburn, S. L. (1960) Tools and human evolution. Scientific American 203:63–75. {aDF, CLB}Google Scholar
(1982) Human evolution. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 25:583–602. {aDF}Google Scholar
Washburn, S. L. & Lancaster, C. S. (1968) The evolution of hunting. In: Man the hunter, ed. Lee, R. B. & DeVore, I.. Aldine. {RF}Google Scholar
Weinstein, J. D. & Hedges, T. R. (1962) Studies of intracranial and orbital vasculature of the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatto). Anatomical Record 144:37–41. {WHK}Google Scholar
Wheeler, P. E. (1984) The evolution of bipedality and loss of functional body hair in hominids. Journal of Human Evolution 13:91–98. {aDF, PEW}Google Scholar
(1985) The loss of functional body hair in man: The influence of thermal environment, body form, and bipedality. Journal of Human Evolution 14:23–28. {aDF, PEW}Google Scholar
(1988) Stand tall and stay cool. New Scientist 12 May:62–65. {aDF, RAB, PEW}Google Scholar
Whitby, J. D. & Dunkin, L. J. (1971) Cerebral oesophageal and nasopharyngeal temperatures. British Journal of Anesthesiology 43:673–76. {GLB}Google Scholar
White, E. L. (1989) Cortical circuits: Synaptic organization of the cerebral cortex: Structure, function and theory. Birkhauser. {HJJ}Google Scholar
White, T. D. (1988) The comparative biology of “robust” Australopithecus: Australopithecines, ed. Grine, F. E.. Aldine de Gruyter. {WHK}Google Scholar
Whiten, A. & Byrne, R. W. (1987) Taking (Machiavellian) intelligence apart. In: Machiavellian intelligence, ed. Byrne, R. W. & Whiten, A.. Oxford University Press. {RAB}Google Scholar
(1988) The Machiavellian intelligence hypotheses. In: Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and humans, ed. Byrne, R. W. & Whiten, A.. Clarendon Press. {AW}Google Scholar
Woodhall, B. (1936) Variations of the cranial venous sinuses in the region of the Torcular Herophili. Archives of Surgery 33:297–314. {rDF}Google Scholar
(1939) Anatomy of the cranial blood sinuses with particular reference to the lateral. Laryngoscope 49:966–1010. {JL}CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woolsey, C. N. (1958) Organization of somatic sensory and motor areas of the cerebral cortex. In: Biological and biochemical bases of behavior, ed. Harlow, H. & Woolsey, C.. University of Wisconsin Press. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1964) Cortical localization as defined by evoked potential and electrical stimulation studies. In: Cerebral localization and organization, ed. Schaltenbrand, G. & Woolsey, C. N.. University of Wisconsin Press. {aDF}Google Scholar
Wrangham, R. W. (1977) Feeding behaviour of chimanzees in Gombe National Park, Tanzania. In: Primate ecology: Studies of feeding and ranging behaviour in lemurs, monkeys, and apes, ed. Clutton-Brock, T. H.. Academic Press. {AW}Google Scholar
Zihlman, A. (1985) Australopithecus afarensis: Two sexes or two species? In: Hominid evolution: Past, present and future, ed. Tobias, P. V.. Liss, Alan R.. {rDF}Google Scholar
Zihlman, A. L. & Cohn, B. A. (1986) Responses of hominid skin to the savanna. Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Wetenskap 82:89–90. {aDF}Google Scholar
(1988) The adaptivee response of human skin to the savanna. Human Evolution 3:397–409. {aDF}Google Scholar
Zouaoui, A. & Hidden, G. (1989) The cervical vertebral venous plexus, a drainage route for the brain. Surgical and Radiological Anatomy 11:79–81. {MCD}Google Scholar
Zwiebel, W. J. (1982) Introduction to vascular ultrasonography. Grune & Stratton. {MMA}Google Scholar