Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-gs9qr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-31T05:23:02.550Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Integrating Marine Protected Areas in fisheries management systems: some criteria for ecological efficiency

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 July 2013

Lucile Mesnildrey ,
Didier Gascuel  and
Olivier Le Pape
Get access

Abstract

Through a review of the scientific literature and a more in-depth qualitative meta-analysis of 16 case studies distributed worldwide, this article aims to study impacts of MPAs on marine living resources, ecosystems and related fisheries and to highlight their criteria of efficiency as management tools for a sustainable exploitation. MPAs are efficient for conservation purposes and resource restoration, especially inside their borders. MPAs can also be part of fisheries management systems, but there is a lack of knowledge about their wider scale impacts on fish stocks, ecosystem and fisheries. Adjacent fisheries can increase their catches near closed areas, but such effects are delayed until after MPA establishment and are often limited over distance. Even though local specificities in ecosystems and fishing resources lead to high variability in MPA effects, four major criteria modulate the efficiency of MPAs for fisheries management: (1) the size of the closed area; (2) the level of protection of essential habitats for exploited resources; (3) MPA integration as part of wider integrated fisheries management plans; and (4) efficient monitoring and regulation systems, including participative decision making, to ensure that restrictive measures are respected.

Keywords

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)Fishing reserve effectsFisheries managementMarine reserve network

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Aquatic Living Resources , Volume 26 , Issue 2 , April 2013 , pp. 159 - 170
Copyright
© EDP Sciences, IFREMER, IRD 2013

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Albouy, C., Mouillot, D., Rocklin, D., Culioli, J.M., Le Loch, F., 2010, Simulation of the combined effects of artisanal and recreational fisheries on a Mediterranean MPA ecosystem using a trophic model. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 412, 207–221. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alcala, A.C., Russ, G.R., 2006, No-take marine reserves and reef fisheries management in the Philippines: a new people power revolution. Ambio 35, 245–254. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alcala, A.C., Russ, G.R., Maypa, A.P., Calumpong, H.P., 2005, A long term, spatially replicated experimental test of the effect of marine reserves on local fish yield. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 62, 98–108. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anonyme, 2007, The Science of Marine Reserves (2nd edition, International version), 22p.
Ayling A.M., Choat J.H., 2008, Abundance patterns of reef sharks and predatory fishes on differently zoned reefs in the offshore Townsville region. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Research Publication n° 91.
Barrett, N.S., Edgar, G.J., Buxton, C.D., Haddon, M., 2007, Changes in fish assemblages following ten years of protection in Tasmanian marine protected areas. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 345, 141–157. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett, N.S., Buxton, C.D., Edgar, G.J., 2009, Changes in invertebrate and macroalgal populations in Tasmanian marine reserves in the decade following protection. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 370, 104–119. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beare D., Rijnsdorp A., Van Kooten T., Fock H., Schroeder A., Kloppman M., Witbaard R., Meesters E., Schulze T., Blaesbjerg M., Damm U., Quiriins F., 2010, Study for the Revision of the plaice box – Draft Final Report. C002/10.
Behrens, M.D., Lafferty, K.D., 2004, Effects of marine reserves and urchin disease on southern California rocky reef communities. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 279, 129–139. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergen, L.K., Carr, M.H., 2003, Establishing marine reserves, how can science best inform policy? Environment 45, 8–19. Google Scholar
Berkeley, S.A., Chapman, C., Sogard, S.M., 2004, Maternal age as a determinant of larval growth and survival in a marine fish, Sebastes melanops. Ecology 85, 1258–1264. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beukers-Stewart, B.D., Mosley, M.W.J., Brand, A.R., 2003, Population dynamics and predictions in the Isle of Man fishery for great scallop (Pecten maximus). ICES J. Mar. Sci. 60, 224–242. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beukers-Stewart, B.D., Vause, B.J., Mosley, M.W.J., Rossetti, H.L., Brand, A.R., 2005, Benefits of closed area protection for a population of scallops. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 298, 189–204. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blowes, S., Connolly, S., 2012, Risk spreading, connectivity, and optimal reserve spacing. Ecol. Appl. 22, 311–321. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boncoeur J., 2004, Activités halieutiques et activités récréatives dans le cadre d’un espace à protéger: le cas du Parc National Marin d’Iroise. Rapport Final. Projet de recherche cofinancé par le Programme National d’Environnement Côtier, le programme “Espaces Protégés” du Ministère de l’Ecologie et du Développement Durable et la Région Bretagne. CEDEM-IUEM/UBO, Ifremer, C3ED-UVSQ, Brest.
Brochier T., Ecoutin J.M., Tito de Morais L., Kaplan D., Laë R., 2013, A multi-agent ecosystem model for studying changes in a tropical estuarine fish assemblage within a marine protected area. Aquat. Living Resour. 26 doi.org/10.1051/alr/2012028.
Chateau, O., Wantiez, L., 2005, Comparaison de la structure des communautés de poissons coralliens entre une réserve marine et deux zones proches non protégées dans le Parc du Lagon Sud de Nouvelle-Calédonie. Cybium 29, 159–174. Google Scholar
Chateau, O., Wantiez, L., 2009, Movement patterns of four coral reef fish species in a fragmented habitat in New Caledonia: implications for the design of marine protected area networks. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 66, 50–55. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Claudet, J., Osenberg, C.W., Benedetti-Cecchi, L., Domenici, P., García-Charton, J.A., Pérez-Ruzafa, A., Badalamenti, F., Bayle-Sempere, J., Brito, A., Bulleri, F., Culioli, J.M., Dimech, M., Falcón, J.M., Guala, I., Milazzo, M., Sánchez-Meca, J., Somerfield, P.J., Stobart, B., Vandeperre, F., Valle, C., Planes, S., 2008, Marine reserves: size and age do matter. Ecol. Lett. 11, 481–489. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colléter, M., Gascuel, D., Ecoutin, J.M., De Morais, L.T., 2012, Modelling trophic flows in ecosystems to assess the efficiency of Marine Protected Area (MPA), a case study on the coast of Senegal. Ecol. Model. 232, 1–13. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Criquet, G., Garcia, J., Lenfant, P., Marechal, J.P., Reynal, L., 2008, Catches Description of Protected and Unprotected Areas in Martinique (Lesser Antilles). Proc. Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 60, 481–485. Google Scholar
David, G., Léopold, M., Dumas, P.S., Ferraris, J., Herrenschmidt, J.B., Fontenelle, G., 2010, Integrated coastal zone management perspectives to ensure the sustainability of coral reefs in New Caledonia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 61, 323–334. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edgar, G.J., Barrett, N.S., 1999, Effects of the declaration of marine reserves on Tasmanian reef fishes, invertebrates and plants. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 242, 107–144. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edgar, G.J., Barrett, N.S., Morton, A.J., 2004, Patterns of fish movement on eastern Tasmanian rocky reefs. Environm. Biol. Fish. 70, 273–284. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edgar, G.J., Stuart-Smith, R.D., 2008, Ecological effects of marine protected areas on rocky reef communities – a continental-scale analysis. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 388, 51–62. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fanshawe, S., Vanblaricom, G.R., Shelly, A.A., 2003, Restored Top Carnivores as Detriments to the Performance of Marine Protected Areas Intended for Fishery Sustainability: a Case Study with Red Abalones and Sea Otters. Conserv. Biol. 17, 273–283. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation), 2003, Aménagement des pêches. 2. L’approche écosystémique des pêches. FAO Directives techniques pour une pêche responsable, n° 4, suppl. 2, Rome, FAO.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation), 2009. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2008. FAO, Rome.
Ferraris, J., Pelletier, D., Kulbicki, M., Chauvet, C., 2005, Assessing the impact of removing reserve status on the Abore Reef fish assemblage in New Caledonia. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 292, 271–286. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fogarty, M.J., Murawski, S.A., 1998, Large-scale disturbance and the structure of marine systems: fishery impacts on Georges Bank. Ecol. Appl. 8 suppl., S6-S22. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forcada, A., Valle, C., Bonhomme, P., Criquet, G., Cadiou, G., Lenfant, P., Sánchez-Lizaso, J., 2009, Effets of habitat on spillover from marine protected areas to artisanal fisheries. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 379, 197–211. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Francour, P., Harmelin, J.G., Pollard, D., Sartoretto, D., 2001, A review ok marine protected areas in the northwestern Mediterranean region: siting, usage, zonation and management. Aquatic Conservation: Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 11, 155–188. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garcia, S.M., Cochrane, K.L., 2005, Ecosystem approach to fisheries: a review of implementation guidelines. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 62, 311–318. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gell F.R., Roberts C.M., 2002, The Fishery Effects of Marine Reserves and Fishery Closures. WWF-US, 1250 24th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037.
Gell, F.R., Roberts, C.M., 2003, Benefits beyond boundaries: the fishery effects of marine reserves. Trends Ecol. Evol. 18, 448–455. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grift R.E., Tulp I., Clarke L., Damm U., McLay A., Reeves S., Vigneau J., Weber W., 2004, Assessment of the ecological effects of the Plaice Box. Report of the European Commission Expert Working Group to evaluate the Shetland and Plaice boxes, Brussels.
Grüss, A., Kaplan, D.M., Guénette, S., Roberts, C.M., Botsford, L.W., 2011a, Consequences of adult and juvenile movement for marine protected areas. Biol. Conserv. 144, 692–702. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grüss A., Kaplan D., Hart D.R., 2011b, Relative Impacts of Adult Movement, Larval Dispersal and Harvester Movement on the Effectiveness of Reserve Networks. PLoS One 6, e19960.
Guénette, S., Pitcher, T.J., Walter, C.J., 2000, The potential of marine reserves for the managementof northern cod in Newfoundland. Essential fish habitat and marine reserves. Bull. Mar. Sci. 66, 831–852. Google Scholar
Guidetti, P., 2006, Marine reserves reestablish lost predatory interactions and cause community changes in Rocky Reefs. Ecol. Appl. 16, 963–976. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guidetti, P., Notarbartolo-Di-Sciara, G., Agardy, T., 2013, Integrating pelagic and coastal MPAs into large scale ecosystem-wide management. Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 23, 179–182. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guillemot, N., Leopold, M., Cuif, M., Chabanet, P., 2009, Characterization and management of informal fisheries confronted with socio-economic changes in New Caledonia (South Pacific). Fish. Res. 98, 51–61. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halpern B.S., 2003, The impact of marine reserves: do reserves work and does reserve size matter? Ecol. Appl. 13, suppl. S117-S137.
Hamilton, S.L., Caselle, J.E., Malone, D.P., Carr, M.H., 2010, Incorporating biogeography into evaluations of the Channel Islands marine reserve network. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107, 18272–18277. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hannesson, R., 1998, Marine Reserves: What would they accomplish? Mar. Resour. Econ. 13, 159–170. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harmelin-Vivien, M., Le Diréach, L., Bayle-Sempere, J., Charbonnel, E., García-Charton, J.A., Ody, D., Pérez-Ruzafa, A., Reñones, O., Sánchez-Jerez, P., Valle, C., 2008, Gradients of abundance and biomass across reserve boundaries in six Mediterranean marine protected areas: evidence of fish spillover? Biol. Conserv. 141, 1829–1839. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, H., Williamson, D.H., Evans, R., Almany, G., Thorrold, S., Russ, G., Feldheim, K., Van Herwerden, L., Planes, S., Srinivasan, M., Berumen, M., Jones, G., 2012, Larval export from marine reserves and the recruitment benefit for fish and fisheries. Curr. Biol. 22, 1023–1028. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hart, D.R., 2006, When do marine reserves increase fishery yields? Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 63, 1445–1449. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, D.R., Rago, P.J., 2006, Long-term dynamics of US Atlantic sea scallop Placopecten magellanicus populations. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 26, 490–501. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hilborn, R., Stokes, K., Maguire, J.J., Smith, T., Botsford, L.W., Mangel, M., Orensanz, J., Parma, A., Rice, J., Bell, J., Cochrane, K.L., Garcia, S., Hall, S.J., Kirkwood, G.P., Sainsbury, K., Stefansson, G., Walters, C., 2004, When can marine reserves improve fisheries management? Ocean Coast. Manage. 47, 197–205. Google Scholar
Holland, D., 2000, A bioeconomic model of sanctuaries on Georges Bank. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 57, 1307–1319. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ICES, 2007, Report of the Working Group on the Assessment of Southern Shelf Demersal Stock (WGSSDS) 25 June-7 July 2007, ICES Headquarters, Copenhagen, ICES CM 2007/ACFM:28.
Imeson, R.J., Van Den Bergh, J.C.J.M., 2006, Policy failure and stakeholder dissatisfaction in complex ecosystem management: The case on the Dutch Wadden Sea shell fishery. Ecol. Econ. 56, 488–507. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jennings S,Rice, J., 2011, Towards an ecosystem approach to fisheries in Europe: a perspective on existing progress and future directions. Fish Fish. 12, 125–137. Google Scholar
Jollit, I., Léopold, M., Guillemot, N., David, G., Chabanet, P., Lebigre, J.M., Ferraris, J., 2010, Geographical aspects of informal reef fishery systems in New Caledonia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 61, 585–597. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, D.M., 2009, Fish life histories and marine protected areas: an odd couple? Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 377, 213–225. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, D.M., Botsford, L.W., Jorgensen, S., 2006, Dispersal per recruit: an efficient method for assessing sustainability in marine reserve networks. Ecol. Appl. 16, 2248–2263. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kearney R., Farebrother G., 2012, Marine management: Expand Australia’s sustainable fisheries. Nature 482, 162.
Kelleher G., 1999, Guidelines for marine protected areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge.
Lester, S.E., Halpern, B.S., Grorud-Colvert, K., Lubchenco, J., Ruttenberg, B.I., Gaines, S.D., Airamé, S., Warner, R.R., 2009, Biological effects within no-take marine reserves: a global synthesis. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 384, 33–46. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ling, S., Johnson, C., 2012, Marine reserves reduce risk of climate driven phase shift by reinstating size- and habitat-specific trophic interactions. Ecol. Appl. 22, 1232–1245. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, L.R., Punt, A.E., Mapstone, B.D., Begg, G.A., Goldman, B., Ellis, N., 2009, Different responses to area closures and effort controls for sedentary and migratory harvested species in a multispecies coral reef linefishery. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 66, 1931–1941. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCook, L.J., Ayling, T., Cappo, M., Choat, J.H., Evans, R.D., De Freitas, D.M., Heupel, M., Hughes, T.P., Jones, G.P., Mapstone, B., Marsh, H., Mills, M., Molloy, F.J., Pitcher, C.R., Pressey, R.L., Russ, G.R., Sutton, S., Sweatman, H., Tobin, R., Wachenfeld, D.R., Williamson, D.H., 2010, Adaptative management of the Great Barrier Reef : A globally significant demonstration of the benefits of networks of marine reserves. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 107, 18278–18285. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maury, O., Gascuel, D., 1999, SHADYS (simulateur halieutique de dynamiques spatiales), a GIS based mumerical model of fisheries. Example application: the study of a marine protected area. Application à l’étude d’une réserve marine. Aquat. Living Resour. 12, 77–88. Google Scholar
MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment), 2005. Ecosystems and human well-being: synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC.
Moffitt, E.A., Botsford, L.W., Kaplan, D.M., O’Farrell, M.R., 2009, Marine reserve networks for species that move within a home range. Ecol. Appl. 19, 1835–1847. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murawski, S.A., Brown, R., Lai, H.L., Rago, P.J., Hendrickson, L., 2000, Large-scale closed areas as a fisheries management tool in temperate marine systems: the Georges Bank experience. Bull. Mar. Sci. 66, 775–798. Google Scholar
Murawski, S.A., Wigley, S.E., Fogarty, M.J., Rago, P.J., Mountain, D.G., 2005, Effort distribution and catch patterns adjacent to temperate MPAs. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 62, 1150–1167. Google Scholar
Nagelkerten I., Grol M., Mumby P., 2012, Effects of marine reserves versus nursery habitat availability on structure of reef fish communities. PLos One, 7, e36906.
Neigel J.E., 2003, Species-area relationships and marine conservation. Ecol. Appl. 13 suppl S138–S145.
Pauly, D., Alder, J., Bennett, E., Christensen, V., Tyedmers, P., Watson, R., 2003, The future of fisheries. Science 302, 1359–1361. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pastoors, M.A., Rijnsdorp, A.D., Van Beek, F.A., 2000, Effects of partially closed area in the North Sea (“Plaice box”) on stock development of plaice. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 57, 1014–1022. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pelletier, D., Magal, P., 1996, Dynamics of a migratory population under different fishing effort allocation schemes in time and space. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 53, 1186–1199. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérez-Ruzafa, A., González-Wangüemert, M., Lenfant, P., Marcos, C., García-Charton, J.A., 2006, Effects of fishing protection on the genetic structure of fish populations. Biol. Conserv. 129, 244–255. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitchford, J.W., Codling, E.A., Psarra, D., 2007, Uncertainty and sustainability in fisheries and the benefit of marine protected areas. Ecol. Model. 207, 286–292. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Planes S., García-Charton J.A., Marcos C., Pérez-Ruzafa A., 2008, Ecological effects of Atlanto-Mediterranean Marine Protected Areas in the European Union. EMPAFISH Project, Booklet n° 1.
Preuss, B., Pelletier, D., Wantiez, L., Letourneur, Y., Sarramegna, S., Kulbicki, M., Galzin, R., Ferraris, J., 2009, Considering multiple-species attributes to understand better the effects of successive changes in protection status on a coral reef fish assemblage. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 66, 170–179. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rice J., Moksness E., Attwood C., Brown S., Dahle G, Gjerde K.M., Grefsrud E.S., Kenchington R., Kleiven A.R., McConney P., Ngoile M.A.K., Næsje T.F., Olsen E., Olsen E.M., Sanders J., Sharma C, Vestergaardm O., Westlund L., 2012. The role of MPAs in reconciling fisheries management with conservation of biological diversity. Ocean Coast. Manage. 69, 217–230.
Roberts, C.M., Bohnsack, J.A., Gell, F., Hawkins, J.P., Goodridge, R., 2001, Effects of marine reserves on adjacent fisheries. Science 294, 1920–1923. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts C.M., Hawkins J.P., 2000, Fully-protected marine reserves: a guide. WWF Endangered Seas Campaign, and Environment Department, University of York, York, UK.
Roberts, C.M., Hawkins, J.P., Gell, F.R., 2005, The role of marine reserves in achieving sustainable fisheries. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 360, 123–132. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts C.M., Hawkins, J.P., 2012, Establishment of fish stock recovery areas. Report of the European Parliament, Directorate General for Internal Policies, Policy Dep. B: structural and cohesion policies, Fisheries, IP/B/PECH/IC/2012–053.
Russ, G.R., Alcala, A.C., 1996, Do marine reserves export adult fish biomass? Evidence from Apo Island, Central Philippines. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 132, 1–9. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russ, G.R., Alcala, A.C., Maypa, A.P., 2003, Spillover from marine reserves: the case of Naso vlamingii at Apo Island, the Philippines. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 264, 15–20. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russ, G.R., Cheal, A.J., Dolman, A.M., Emslie, M.J., Evans, R.D., Miller, I., Sweatman, H., Williamson, D.H., 2008, Rapid increase in fish numbers follows creation of world’s largest marine reserve network. Curr. Biol. 18, R514-R515. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saintilan, N., Mazumber, D., Cranney, K., 2008, Changes to fish assemblages visiting estuarine wetlands following the closure of commercial fishing in Botany Bay, Australia. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health 11, 441–9. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sale, P.F., Cowen, R.K., Danilowicz, B.S., Jones, G.P., Kritzer, J.P., Lindeman, K.C., Planes, S., Polunin, N., Russ, G.R., Sadovy, Y.J., Steneck, S., 2005, Critical science gaps impede use of no-take fishery reserves. Trends Ecol. Evol. 20, 74–80. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanchirico J.N., Cochran K.A., Emerson P.M., 2002, Marine Protected Areas: economic and social implications. Resources for the future, Discuss. Pap. 2–26.
Sethi, S.A., Hilborn, R., 2008, Interactions between poaching and management policy affect marine reserves as conservation tools. Biol. Conserv. 141, 506–516. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shanks A.L., Grantham B.A., Carr M.H., 2003, Propagule dispersal distance and the size and spacing of marine reserves. Ecol. Appl. 13, suppl S159-S169.
Shears, N.T., Babcock, R.C., 2003, Continuing trophic cascade effects after 25 years of no-take marine reserve protection. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 246, 1–16. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shears, N., Babcock, R., Salomon, A., 2008, Context-dependent effects of fishing: variation in trophic cascades across environmental gradients. Ecol. Appl. 18, 1860–1873. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scholz, A., Bonzon, K., Fujita, R., Benjamin, N., Woodling, N., Black, P., Steinback, C., 2004, Participatory socioeconomic analysis: drawing on fishermen’s knowledge for marine protected area planning in California, Mar. Policy 28, 335–349. Google Scholar
Sweeting C.J., Polunin N.V.C., 2005, Marine protected areas for management of temperate north Atlantic fisheries. University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Dep. Environm. Food Rural Affairs Report.
Tetreault, I., Ambrose, R.F., 2007, Temperate marine reserves enhance targeted but not untargeted fishes in multiple no-take MPAs. Ecol. Appl. 17, 2251–2267. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tian, R.C., Chen, C., Stokesbury, K.D.E., Rothschild, B.J., Cowles, G.W., Xu, Q., Hu, S., Harris, B.P., Marino, M.C. II, 2009, Dispersal and settlement of sea scallop larvae spawned in the fishery closed areas on Georges Bank. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 66, 1–10. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uriarte A., Alvarez P., Iversen S., Molloy J., Villamor B., Martíns M.M., Myklevol S., 2001, Spatial pattern of migration and recruitment of northeast Atlantic mackerel. ICES Annual Science Conference, 26–28 Sept. 2001, ICES CM 2001/O: 17.
Valls, A., Gascuel, D., Guénette, S., Francour, P., 2012, Modeling trophic interactions to assess the potential effects of a marine protected area: case study in the NW Mediterranean Sea. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 456, 201–214. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van de Wolfshaar, K., HilleRisLambers, R., Gardmark, A., 2011, Effect of habitat productivity and exploitation on populations with complex life cycles. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 438, 175–184. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vandeperre, F., Higgins, R.M., Sánchez-Meca, J., Maynou, F., Goñi, R., Martín-Sosa, P., Pérez-Ruzafa, A., Afonso, P., Bertocci, I., Crec’hriou, R., D’Anna, G., Dimech, M., Dorta, C., Esparza, O., Falcón, J.M., Forcada, A., Guala, I., Le Direach, L., Marcos, C., Ojeda-Martínez, C., Pipitone, C., Schembri, P.J., Stelzenmüller, V., Stobart, B., Santos, R.S., 2010, Effects of no-take area size and age of marine protected areas on fisheries yields: a meta-analytical approach. Fish Fish. 12, 412–426. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhulst S., Oosterbeek K, Rutten A.L., Ens B.J., 2004, Shellfish fishery severely reduces condition and survival of oystercatchers despite creation of large marine protected areas. Ecol. Soc. 9, 17
Wantiez, L., Thollot, P., Kulbicki, M., 1997, Effects of marine reserves on coral reef fish communities from five islands in New Caledonia. Coral Reefs 16, 215–225. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Worm, B., Barbier, E.B., Beaumont, N., Duffy, J.E., Folke, C., Halpern, B.S., Jackson, J., Lotze, H.K., Micheli, F., Palumbi, S.R., Sala, E., Selkoe, K.A., Stachowicz, J.J., Watson, R., 2006, Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science 314, 787–790. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Worm, B., Hilborn, R., Baum, J., Branch, T.A., Collie, J.S., Costello, C., Fogarty, M.J., Fulton, E., Hutchings, J.A., Jennings, S., Jensen, O.P., Lotze, H.K., Mace, P.M., McClanahan, T.R., Minto, C., Palumbi, S.R., Parma, A.M., Ricard, D., Rosenberg, A.A., Watson, R., Zeller, D., 2009, Rebuilding global fisheries. Science 325, 578–584.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed