Hostname: page-component-7f64f4797f-8cpv7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-11-07T23:37:51.729Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Systems thinking and aircraft design: managing complexity

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2025

A.N. Dişlitaş Open the ORCID record for A.N. Dişlitaş [Opens in a new window] ,
Ş. Yeşil Open the ORCID record for Ş. Yeşil [Opens in a new window]  and
M. Yildiz Open the ORCID record for M. Yildiz [Opens in a new window]
A.N. Dişlitaş*
Affiliation:
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Erciyes University , Kayseri, 38030, Türkiye Erciyes University, Aviation Application and Research Center (ERHAM), Kayseri, 38030, Türkiye
Ş. Yeşil
Affiliation:
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Erciyes University , Kayseri, 38030, Türkiye
M. Yildiz
Affiliation:
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Erciyes University , Kayseri, 38030, Türkiye Erciyes University, Aviation Application and Research Center (ERHAM), Kayseri, 38030, Türkiye
*
Corresponding author: Ayşe Nur Dişlitaş; Email: aysenurdislitas@erciyes.edu.tr
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Systems are holistic that represent complex structures in which different components interact. Systems thinking plays an important role as a methodology used to solve and analyse these complex problems. This approach emphasises addressing problems holistically rather than simply breaking them down into parts, providing a deeper understanding of identifying and resolving root causes. The article aims to explain the conceptual framework of systems thinking by discussing the basic concepts and principles of systems thinking in detail. In this context, the literature focuses on reaching a common definition of the term ‘systems’ and discusses practical approaches to the use of systems thinking in aircraft design. It also includes analysis of the application of systems thinking through examples of catastrophic accidents resulting from the misunderstanding or mismanagement of complex systems in engineering studies. The change in aircraft design process over the years has been examined, and a new categorisation method is proposed. By integrating systems thinking into the aircraft design process, it examines the advantages it will provide in understanding and optimising the interaction of components, saving time and costs. This study aims to deal with the systems thinking perspective of aircraft design. The importance of the system concept in aviation is emphasised with concrete examples, and its applicability is examined. Thus, a base is formed for its use in aviation.

Keywords

aircraft designsystem designsystems thinking

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
The Aeronautical Journal , First View , pp. 1 - 16
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Royal Aeronautical Society

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Adamenko, D., Kunnen, S., Pluhnau, R., Loibl, A. and Nagarajah, A. Review and comparison of the methods of designing the digital twin, Procedia CIRP, 2020, 91, pp 27–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2020.02.146 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, K.M.G. Systems theory: a formal construct for understanding systems, Int. J. Syst. Syst. Eng, 2012, 3, (3/4), p 209. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSSE.2012.052684 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alonso, J.J., LeGresley, P. and Pereyra, V. Aircraft design optimization, Math. Comput. Simul, 2009, 79, (6), pp 1948–1958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matcom.2007.07.001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amissah, M., Gannon, T. and Monat, J. What is systems thinking? Expert perspectives from the WPI systems thinking colloquium of 2 october 2019, Systems, 2020, 8, (1), p 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems8010006 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, J.R. and Wade, J. Development of systems engineering expertise, Procedia Comput. Sci., 2015, 44, pp 689–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2015.03.026 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnold, R.D. and Wade, J.P. A definition of systems thinking: a systems approach, Procedia Comput. Sci., 2015, 44, pp 669–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2015.03.050 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Attarkar, S., Ahire, D., Pawar, T. and M, S.K. Methodology to aircraft design – market study & design optimization, Grad Res Eng Technol., 2022, 1, pp 86–93. https://doi.org/10.47893/GRET.2022.1106CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballard, E., Evbuoma, E., Farrell, A., Hu, M. and Liem, W. Understanding Systems from a Feedback Perspective, 2021. https://doi.org/10.7936/T4K1-8G36 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beasley, R. 4.3.1 The barriers to systems thinking, INCOSE Int. Symp., 2012, 22, (1), pp 517–531. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2334-5837.2012.tb01353.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behl, D.V. and Ferreira, S. Systems thinking: an analysis of key factors and relationships, Procedia Comput. Sci., 2014, 36, pp 104–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2014.09.045 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borunda, A. We still don’t know the full impacts of the BP oil spill, 10 years later, 2020, Retrieved December 3, 2023, from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/bp-oil-spill-still-dont-know-effects-decade-later Google Scholar
Buchanan, R. Systems thinking and design thinking: the search for principles in the world we are making, She Ji: The J. Des. Econ. Innov, 2019, 5, (2), pp 85–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sheji.2019.04.001 Google Scholar
Büchel, K. System boundaries, in Schaltegger, S., Braunschweig, A., Büchel, K., Dinkel, F., Frischknecht, R., Maillefer, C., … Zimmermann, P. (Eds.), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)—Quo vadis?, Birkhäuser Basel, 1996, Basel, pp. 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-0348-9022-9_2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burtler, J. and Hawks, D. What is a subsystem in business? 2022, Retrieved November 20, 2023, from https://study.com/learn/lesson/subsystem-structures-examples-business.html Google Scholar
Cavana, R.Y. and Maani, K.E. A Methodological Framework for Integrating Systems Thinking and System Dynamics, In Presented at the In Proceedings of the 18th International Conference of the System Dynamics Society, 2000, pp 6–10.Google Scholar
Chu, L., Li, Q., Gu, F., Du, X., He, Y. and Deng, Y. Design, modeling, and control of morphing aircraft: a review, Chin. J. Aeronaut., 2022, 35, (5), pp 220–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2021.09.013 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Claeys, D. and Minati, G. A systems thinking approach of crises: from optimization to change strategy? Acta Europeana Systemica, 2020, 8, pp 1–2. https://doi.org/10.14428/aes.v8i1.56173 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dincer, I., Rosen, M.A. and Ahmadi, P. Optimization of Energy Systems (1st ed.). Wiley, 2017, Chennai, India. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118894484CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dişlitaş, A.N., Yıldız, M. and Kale-Halasz, G. Digital twin applications in aircraft design process, In 3rd International Conference on Cognitive Mobility, CogMob 2024, 2024, pp 436–444. Budapest, Hungary. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81799-1_40 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dong, J. A dynamic systems theory approach to development of listening strategy use and listening performance, Syst., 2016, 63, pp 149–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2016.10.004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dugan, K.E., Mosyjowski, E.A., Daly, S.R. and Lattuca, L.R. Systems thinking assessments in engineering: a systematic literature review, Syst. Res Behavioral Sci., 2022, 39, (4), pp 840–866. https://doi.org/10.1002/sres.2808 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Encyclopedia Britannica. Challenger disaster. 2023a Retrieved December 8, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/event/Challenger-disaster Google Scholar
Encyclopedia Britannica. The Hindenburg, before and after disaster. 2023b Retrieved December 8, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/story/the-hindenburg-before-and-after-disaster Google Scholar
Eren Şenaras, A. and Sezen, H.K. Sistem Düşüncesi, J. Life Econ., 2017, 4, (1), pp 39–58. https://doi.org/10.15637/jlecon.187 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fioriti, M., Boggero, L., Corpino, S., Prakasha, P.S., Ciampa, P.D. and Nagel, B. The effect of sub-systems design parameters on preliminary aircraft design in a multidisciplinary design environment, Transp. Res. Procedia, 2018, 29, 135–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2018.02.012 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gharajedaghi, J. Systems thinking: Managing chaos and complexity: a platform for designing business architecture, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999, Boston.Google Scholar
Gökçe, C., Yıldız, M. and Kale-Halasz, G. VTOL craft controller design and simulation using digital twin, in Zöldy, M. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 3rd Cognitive Mobility Conference, Springer Nature Switzerland, 2025, Cham, pp. 401–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81799-1_37 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grose, D. Reengineering the aircraft design process. 5th Symposium on Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization. Presented at the 5th Symposium on Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization, Panama City Beach,FL,U.S.A. Panama City Beach,FL,U.S.A.: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 1994. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.1994-4323 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, Y., Zhang, F. and Ma, Y. A scheme of digital twin air combat battlefield and digital twin model design, 2024 36th Chinese Control and Decision Conference (CCDC), IEEE, 2024, Xi’an, China, pp. 1797–1801. https://doi.org/10.1109/CCDC62350.2024.10588183 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ji, G., Hao, J., Gao, J. and Lu, C. Digital twin modeling method for individual combat quadrotor UAV, 2021 IEEE 1st International Conference on Digital Twins and Parallel Intelligence (DTPI), IEEE, 2021, Beijing, China, pp. 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/DTPI52967.2021.9540131 Google Scholar
Kapsali, M. Systems thinking in innovation project management: a match that works, Int. J. Proj. Manage., 2011, 29, (4), pp 396–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2011.01.003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longueville, S.D., Jézégou, J., Bénard, E. and Gourinat, Y. Enhancing preliminary aircraft design through operational considerations: a data-driven approach, IOP Conf. Ser.: Mat. Sci. and Eng, 2021, 1024, (1), p 012057. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/1024/1/012057 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
López Díez, J.L. and Asenjo Tornell, J.L. A400M aircraft. Design Requirements & Conceptual Definition, In Presented at the Conference in ETSIAE, Madrid 3rd, 2018.Google Scholar
Makocha, I.R., Ete, T. and Saini, G. Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: A Review, 2019, 5, pp 65–71.Google Scholar
Mattheis, C. The system theory of Niklas Luhmann and the constitutionalization of the world society, Goettingen J. Int. Law, 2012, 4, pp 625–647. https://doi.org/10.3249/1868-1581-4-2-MATTHEISGoogle Scholar
McIlroy, R.C., Banks, V.A. and Parnell, K.J. 25 Years of road safety: The journey from thinking humans to systems-thinking, Appl. Ergon., 2022, 98, p 103592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2021.103592 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morin, E. The nature of nature, P. Lang, 1992, New York.Google Scholar
Morris, D.M. and Adams, K.M. The Whole is more than the Sum of its Parts: Understanding and Managing Emergent Behavior in Complex Systems. CrossTalk, 2013 , 26. 15-19. Google Scholar
Nacak, A. Havacılık Alanında Dijital İkiz Uygulamaları, J. Aerosp. Sci. Manage., 2024, 2, (1), 58–80.Google Scholar
Nacak, A. and Yildiz, M. Digital twin in aircraft design, In Zöldy, M. (Ed.), in Proceedings of the 3rd Cognitive Mobility Conference, Springer Nature Switzerland, 2025, Cham, pp. 414–424. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81799-1_38 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oliveira, J.G.D., Muÿlder, C.F.D., Pinheiro, M.M.K. and Cardoso, A.M.P. Social information systems: an approach to complexity. in Rosa Martins, E. (Ed), A Ciência da Computação e o Desenvolvimento de Conteúdo Tecnológico Relevante para a Sociedade, 1st ed., Atena Editora, 2020, Brasil, pp. 89–106. https://doi.org/10.22533/at.ed.6832020038CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oskarsson, B., Huge-Brodin, M. and Hallström, J. Systems Thinking in a Mechanical Engineering Program, In Presented at the Proceedings of the 18th International CDIO Conference. 209-219, Reykjavik University, Reykjavik, Iceland. Reykjavik University, Reykjavik, Iceland, 2022.Google Scholar
Özdemir, M.H. and Özkan, G. Understanding defense industry: a systems thinking perspective, PERCEPTIONS: Journal of Int Aff, 2022, 26, (2), pp 241–258.Google Scholar
Paternina-Verona, D.A., Coronado-Hernández, O.E., Pérez-Sánchez, M. and Ramos, H.M. Real-time analysis and digital twin modeling for CFD-based air valve control during filling procedures, Water, 2024, 16, (21), p 3015. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16213015 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plate, R. and Monroe, M. A structure for assessing systems thinking. Creat. Learn. Exch., 2014, 23, (1), pp 1–3.Google Scholar
Raj, P. Aircraft design in the 21st century—Implications for design methods, In 29th AIAA, Fluid Dynamics Conference. Presented at the 29th AIAA, Fluid Dynamics Conference, Albuquerque,NM,U.S.A. Albuquerque,NM,U.S.A.: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1998. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.1998-2895 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sadraey, M.H. Aircraft design: A systems engineering approach, Wiley, 2013, Chichester.Google Scholar
Sevaldson, B. Redesigning systems thinking, FormAkademisk - Forskningstidsskrift for Des. Og Designdidaktikk, 2017, 10, (1), pp 1–23. https://doi.org/10.7577/formakademisk.1755Google Scholar
Sgobba, T. B-737 MAX and the crash of the regulatory system, J. Space Saf. Eng, 2019, 6, (4), pp 299–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsse.2019.09.006 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sillitto, H., Dori, D., Griego, R.M., Jackson, S., Krob, D., Godfrey, P., … McKinney, D. Defining “System”: a comprehensive approach, INCOSE Int. Symp., 2017, 27, (1), pp 170–186. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2334-5837.2017.00352.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sterman, J.D. System Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World. Presented at the ESD Internal Symposium, 2002.Google Scholar
Tfaily, A. and Kokkolaras, M. Integrating Air Systems in Aircraft Multidisciplinary Design Optimization, In 2018 Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization Conference. Presented at the 2018 Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization Conference, Atlanta, Georgia. Atlanta, Georgia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2018. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2018-3742 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torenbeek, E. Advanced aircraft design: Conceptual design, analysis, and optimization of subsonic civil airplanes, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2013, Chichester, West Sussex, United Kingdom.10.1002/9781118568101CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Umpleby, S.A. Ross Ashby’s general theory of adaptive systems, Int. J. Gen. Syst., 2009, 38, (2), pp 231–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/03081070802601509 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhagen, W.J.C., Bermell-Garcia, P., Van Dijk, R.E.C. and Curran, R. A critical review of knowledge-based engineering: an identification of research challenges, Adv. Eng. Inf., 2012, 26, (1), pp 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aei.2011.06.004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeff, R.P., Knippels, M.-C.P.J., Gilissen, M.G.R. and Boersma, K.T. The theoretical nature of systems thinking. perspectives on systems thinking in biology education, Front. Educ., 2018, 3, p 40. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2018.00040 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Von Bertalanffy, L. General System Theory: Foundations, Development (41973(1968)), George Braziller, 1968, New York.Google Scholar
Vutetakis, D. Applications—Transportation | Aviation: Battery, In Reference Module in Chemistry, Molecular Sciences and Chemical Engineering, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409547-2.01114-8 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiener, N. Cybernetics. Scientific American, 1948.10.1038/scientificamerican1148-14CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiseman, W.J., Scoggins, S.M., Michelli, R.D., Janet, J.A. and Walker, A.L. Component Oriented Development Of Autonomous Mobile Robots Facilitates Interdisciplinary Design. Presented at the ASEE 1999 Annual Conference, Charlotte, North Carolina. Charlotte, North Carolina, 1999. Retrieved from https://peer.asee.org/8111 Google Scholar
Yener, H. A study on effects of system thinking and decision-making styles over entrepreneurship skills, Turk. J. Engineering, 2022, 6, (1), pp 26–33. https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.758921 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yildiz, M. Initial airworthiness requirements for aircraft electric propulsion. Aircr. Eng. Aerosp. Technol., 2022, 94, (8), pp 1357–1365. https://doi.org/10.1108/AEAT-08-2021-0238 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zipay, J.J., Modlin, C.T. and Larsen, C.E. The Ultimate Factor of Safety for Aircraft and Spacecraft—Its History, Applications and Misconceptions, In 57th AIAA/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference. Presented at the 57th AIAA/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, San Diego, California, USA. San Diego, California, USA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2016. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2016-1715 CrossRefGoogle Scholar