Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-7f64f4797f-zzvtc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-11-09T14:48:17.573Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - Language Development in the Old English Period

from Part I - The Context of English

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 October 2025

Laura Wright
Affiliation:
University of Cambridge
Raymond Hickey
Affiliation:
University of Limerick
Get access

Summary

This chapter discusses the extent to which language contact between the indigenous inhabitants of England and the Germanic migrants (fifth to sixth centuries) may have influenced the evolution of English in its earliest stages. It then considers the possible consequences of contact with Norse in the Danelaw (eighth to eleventh centuries), the so-called Viking/Norse hypothesis. It furthermore addresses theories concerning the emergence of the first literary forms of language, associated with the Kingdom of Mercia and the School of Winchester and the tenth-century Benedictine Reform. Theories about the possible influence of the Mercian and West Saxon proto-standards on other dialects are also reviewed, since they may have obscured, at a vernacular level, the results of language contact with Scandinavian in the Old English period.

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
The New Cambridge History of the English Language
Context, Contact and Development
, pp. 78 - 98
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2025

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Adamczyk, Elżbieta. 2023. Traces of language contact in nominal morphology of Late Northumbrian and Northern Middle English. In Sara, M. Pons-Sanz and Sylvester, Louise (eds.), Medieval English in a Multilingual Context Current Methodologies and Approaches. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 279310.10.1007/978-3-031-30947-2_10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, J. N. 2007. The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC – AD 600. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511482977CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, Charles James N. and Maroldt, Karl. 1977. The French lineage of English. In Meisel, Jürgen (ed.), Langues en contact – Pidgins – Creoles – Languages in Contact. Tübingen: Narr, pp. 2151.Google Scholar
Benskin, Michael. 1994. Descriptions of dialect and areal distributions. In Laing, Margaret and Williamson, Keith (eds.), Speaking in Our Tongues: Proceedings of a Colloquium on Medieval Dialectology and Related Disciplines. Cambridge: Brewer, pp. 169187.Google Scholar
Benskin, Michael. 2011. Present indicative plural concord in Brittonic and early English. Transactions of the Philological Society 109: 158185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blom, Alderik H. 2017. Glossing the Psalms: The Emergence of the Written Vernaculars in Western Europe from the Seventh to the Twelfth Centuries. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Michelle P. 2016. ‘A good woman’s Son’: aspects of Aldred’s agenda in glossing the Lindisfarne Gospels. In Cuesta, Julia Fernández and Pons-Sanz, Sara (eds.), The Old English Glosses to the Lindisfarne Gospels: Language, Author and Context. Buchreihe der Anglia. Anglian Book Series, Vol. 51. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capelli, Cristian, Redhead, Nicola, Abernethy, Julia K., Gratrix, Fiona, Wilson, James F., Moen, Torolf, Hervig, Tor, Richards, Martin, Stumpf, Michael P. H., Underhill, Peter A., Bradshaw, Paul, Shaha, Alom, Thomas, Mark G., Bradman, Neal and Goldstein, David B.. 2003. A Y chromosome consensus of the British Isles. Current Biology 13: 979984.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capelli, C. Redhead, N., Abernethy, J. K., Gratrix, F., Wilson, J. F., Moen, T., Hervig, T., Richards, M., Stumpf, M. P. H., Underhill, P. A., Bradshaw, P., Shaha, A., Thomas, M. G., Bradman, N. and Goldstein, D. G. 2003. A Y chromosome consensus of the British Isles. Current Biology 13: 979984.10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00373-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Cecily. 1992. Onomastics. In Blake, Norman (ed.), The Cambridge History of the English Language, Vol. II: 1066–1476. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 542604.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coates, Richard. 2007. Invisible Britons: the view from linguistics. In Higham, Nicholas (ed.), Britons in Anglo-Saxon England. Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, pp. 172191.10.1515/9781846155185-019CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, Marcelle. 2014. Old Northumbrian Verbal Morphosyntax and the (Northern) Subject Rule. NOWELE Supplement Series 25. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crisma, Paola and Pintzuk, Susan. 2019. The noun phrase and the ‘Viking hypothesis’. Language Variation and Change 31: 219246.10.1017/S0954394519000127CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalton-Puffer, Christiane. 1995. Middle English is a Creole and its opposite: on the value of plausible speculation. In Fisiak, Jacek (ed.), Linguistic Change under Contact Conditions. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 3550.10.1515/9783110885170.35CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dance, Richard. 2019. Words Derived from Old Norse in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: An Etymological Survey. Publications of the Philological Society 50. 2 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Domingue, Nicole Z. 1977. Middle English: another creole? Journal of Creole Studies 1: 89100.Google Scholar
Eble, Connie. 1970. Noun inflection in Royal 7.C.XII, Ælfric’s First Series of Catholic Homilies. PhD dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Emonds, Joseph and Terje Faarlund, Jan. 2014. The Language of the Vikings. Olomouc Modern Language Monographs 3. Olomouc: Palacký University.Google Scholar
Faulkner, Mark. 2020. Quantifying the consistency of ‘standard’ Old English spelling. Transactions of the Philological Society 118.1: 192205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernández Cuesta, Julia and Langmuir, Christopher. 2019. Verbal morphology in the Old English gloss to the Durham Collectar. North-Western European Language Evolution 72.2: 134164.10.1075/nowele.00025.ferCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernández Cuesta, Julia and Langmuir, Christopher. 2025. Mood selection in the Old Northumbrian Gloss to Durham MS A.iv.19. Transactions of the Philological Society 123.1.Google Scholar
Fernández Cuesta, Julia and Rodríguez Ledesma, Nieves. 2020. Reduced forms in the nominal morphology of the Lindisfarne Gospel Gloss: a case of accusative/dative syncretism. Folia Linguistica Historica 41.1: 3766.10.1515/flih-2020-0002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Filppula, Marku, Klemola, Juhani and Paulasto, Heli. 2008. English and Celtic in Contact. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleming, Robin. 2010. Britain after Rome: The Fall and Rise 400 to 1070. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Gneuss, Helmut. 1972. The origin of Standard Old English and Æthelwold’s school at Winchester. Anglo-Saxon England 1: 6383.10.1017/S0263675100000089CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Görlach, Manfred. 1986. Middle English – a Creole? In Kastovsky, Dieter and Szwedek, Aleksander (eds.), Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 329344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gretsch, Mechthild. 2003. In search of Standard Old English. In Kornexl, Lucia and Lenker, Ursula (eds.), Bookmarks from the Past: Studies in Early English Language and Literature in Honour of Helmut Gneuss. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, pp. 3367.Google Scholar
Gretsch, Mechthild. 2006. A key to Ælfric’s Standard Old English. Leeds Studies in English 37: 161177.Google Scholar
Grimmer, Martin. 2002. Britons and Saxons in Pre-Viking Wessex: reflections on the Law 77 of King Ine. Parergon: Bulletin of the Australian and New Zealand Association for Medieval and Renaissance Studies 19.1: 117.10.1353/pgn.2002.0093CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hadley, Dawn M. 2006. The Vikings in England: Settlement, Society and Culture. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Haugen, Einar. 1966. Dialect, language, nation. American Anthropologist 68.4: 922935.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Härke, Heinrich. 2007. Invisible Britons, Gallo-Romans and Russians: perspectives on culture change. In Higham, Nicholas J. (ed.), Britons in Anglo-Saxon England. Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, pp. 5767.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hickey, Raymond. 2012. Assessing the role of contact in the history of English. In Nevalainen, Terttu and Traugott, Elizabeth Closs (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 485496.10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199922765.013.0041CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hickey, Raymond. 2020a. The interplay of internal and external factors in varieties of English. In Kytö, Merja and Smitterberg, Erik (eds.), Late Modern English: Novel Encounters. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 4364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hickey, Raymond (ed.). 2020b. The Handbook of Language Contact. Second edition. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.10.1002/9781119485094CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higham, Nicholas J. 2013. Britain in and out of the Roman Empire. In Higham, Nicholas J. and Ryan, Martin J. (eds.), The Anglo-Saxon World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, pp. 2069.Google Scholar
Hogg, Richard. 1992a. General Editor’s preface. In Richard Hogg (ed.), The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. I: The Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. xiiixvi.Google Scholar
Hogg, Richard. 1992b. Introduction. In Richard Hogg (ed.), The Cambridge History of the English Language, Vol. I: The Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 125.Google Scholar
Hough, Carol. 2012. Celts in Scandinavian Scotland and Anglo-Saxon England: place-names and language contact reconsidered. In Stenroos, Merja, Mäkinen, Martti and Særheim, Inge (eds.), Language Contact and Development around the North Sea. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 322.10.1075/cilt.321.01houCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jolly, Karen L. 2012. The Community of St. Cuthbert in the Late Tenth Century: The Chester-le-Street Additions to Durham Cathedral Library A.IV.19. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.Google Scholar
Kastovsky, Dieter. 1992. Semantics and vocabulary. In Hogg, Richard (ed.), The Cambridge History of the English Language, Vol. I: The Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 290407.10.1017/CHOL9780521264747.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kornexl, Lucia. 2012. Old English: standardization. In Bergs, Alexander and Brinton, Laurel J. (eds.), English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook, Vol. I. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 373385.Google Scholar
Kortmann, Bernd. 2016. The Viking hypothesis from a dialectologist’s perspective. Language Dynamics and Change 6: 2730.10.1163/22105832-00601006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuhn, Sherman. 1945. e and æ in Farman’s Mercian Glosses. PMLA 60: 641642.Google Scholar
Labov, William. 1994. Principles of Linguistic Change. Vol. I: Internal Factors. Language in Society 20. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Laing, Margaret and Lass, Roger. 2010. Raiders of the lost archetype: eo in the strong verbs of classes IV and V. Transactions of the Philological Society 108.2: 145163.10.1111/j.1467-968X.2010.01238.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lass, Roger. 1980. On Explaining Language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lass, Roger. 1997. Historical Linguistics and Language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lenker, Ursula. 2000. Monasteries of the Benedictine Reform and the ‘Winchester School’: model cases of social networks in Anglo-Saxon England? Social Network Analysis and the History of English (ed. Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Terttu Nevalainen and Luisella Caon). Special issue of European Journal of English Studies 4.3: 225238.Google Scholar
Leslie, Stephen, Winney, Bruce, Hellenthal, Garett, Davison, Dan, Abdelhamid Boumertit, Day, Tamm, Hutnik, Katarzyna, Royrvik, Ellen C., Cunliffe, Barry, Lawson, Daniel J, Falush, Daniel, Freeman, Colin, Pirinen, Matti, Myers, Simon, Robinson, Mark, Donnelly, Peter and Bodmer, Walter. 2015. The fine-scale genetic structure of the British Population. Nature 519: 309314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lowe, Kathryn A. 2001. On the plausibility of Old English dialectology: the ninth-century Kentish charter material. Folia Linguistica Historica 2.1: 136170.Google Scholar
Machan, Tim. 2016. Snakes, ladders, and standard language. In Machan, Tim (ed). Imagining Medieval English: Language Structures and Theories, 500–1500. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 5477.10.1017/CBO9781107415836.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Márkus, Gilbert. 2017. Conceiving a Nation: Scotland to AD 900. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Milroy, James. 1992. Middle English dialectology. In Blake, Norman (ed.), The Cambridge History of the English Language, Vol. I: 1066–1476. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 156204.10.1017/CHOL9780521264754.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milroy, James. 2003. On the role of the speaker in language change. In Hickey, Raymond (ed.), Motives for Language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 143158.10.1017/CBO9780511486937.010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milroy, James and Milroy, Lesley. 2012. Authority in Language. London/New York: Routledge.10.4324/9780203124666CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko. 2009. The evolution of language: hints from creoles and pidgins. In Minett, James and Wang, William (eds.), Language, Evolution, and the Brain. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Press, pp. 133.Google Scholar
O’Neil, David. 2019. The Middle English creolization hypothesis: persistence, implications and language ideology. Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 54: 113132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pons-Sanz, Sara M. 2013. The Lexical Effects of Anglo-Scandinavian Linguistic Contact on Old English. Turnhout: Brepols.10.1484/M.SEM-EB.5.106260CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poussa, Patricia. 1982. The evolution of early Standard English: the creolization hypothesis. Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 14: 6985.Google Scholar
Richards, Julian D. and Haldenby, Dave. 2018. The scale and impact of Viking settlement in Northumbria. Medieval Archaeology 62.2: 322350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, Jane. 2016. Aldred: Glossator and book historian. In Cuesta, Julia Fernández and Pons-Sanz, Sara (eds.), The Old English Glosses to the Lindisfarne Gospels: Language, Author and Context. Buchreihe der Anglia. Anglian Book Series 51. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 3760.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodríguez Ledesma, Nieves. 2022. Changes in progress in Old Northumbrian: the extension of -s as genitive and plural marker. English Language and Linguistics 26.4: 697722.10.1017/S1360674321000435CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, Alan S. C. 1937. Studies in the Accidence of the Lindisfarne Gospels. Leeds School of English Language Texts and Monographs 2. Leeds University.Google Scholar
Ross, Alan S. C. 1970. Conservatism in the Anglo-Saxon gloss to the Durham Ritual. Notes and Queries 215: 363366.10.1093/nq/17-10-363bCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawyer, P. H. 1958. The density of the Danish settlement in England. University of Birmingham Historical Journal 6: 117.Google Scholar
Schrijver, Peter. 2007. What Britons spoke around 400 AD. In Nicholas, J. Higham (ed.), Britons in Anglo-Saxon England. Publications of the Manchester Centre for Anglo-Saxon Studies 7. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, pp. 165171.10.1515/9781846155185-018CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scragg, Donald. 2006. The Return of the Vikings: The Battle of Maldon 991. Cheltenham: The History Press.Google Scholar
Sykes, Bryan. 2006. Blood of the Isles: Exploring the Genetic Roots of Our Tribal History. London: Bantam.Google Scholar
Synder, Christopher. 2003. The Britons (The Peoples of Europe). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Thomason, Sarah Grey. 2001. Language Contact. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Kaufman, Terrence. 1988. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press.10.1525/9780520912793CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timofeeva, Olga. 2010. Anglo-Latin bilingualism before 1066: prospects and limitations. In Hall, Alaric, Timofeeva, Olga, Kiricsi, Ágnes and Fox, Bethany (eds.), Interfaces between Language and Culture in Medieval England: A Festschrift for Matti Kilpiö. Leiden: Brill, pp. 136.Google Scholar
Timofeeva, Olga. 2017. AELFRED MEC HEHT GEWYRCAN: sociolinguistic concepts in the study of Alfredian English. English Language and Linguistics 22.1: 123148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timofeeva, Olga. 2022. Sociolinguistic Variation in Old English: Records of Communities and People. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/ahs.13CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toon, Thomas. 1983. The Politics of Early Old English Sound Change. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Toon, Thomas. 1992. Old English dialects. In Hogg, Richard (ed.), The Cambridge History of the English Language, Vol. I: The Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 409451.10.1017/CHOL9780521264747.007CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Townend, Matthew. 2002. Language and History in Viking Age England: Linguistic Relations Between Speakers of Old Norse and Old English. Turnhout: Brepols.10.1484/M.SEM-EB.5.106296CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Townend, Matthew. 2006. Contacts and conflicts: Latin, Norse and French. In Mugglestone, Lynda (ed.), Oxford History of English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 6185.Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. 2011. Sociolinguistic Typology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. 2016. Norsified English or Anglicized Norse? Language Dynamics and Change 6: 4648.10.1163/22105832-00601011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walkden, George. 2017. The actuation problem. In Ledgeway, Adam and Roberts, Ian (eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Historical Syntax. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 403424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warner, Anthony. 2017. Norse contact, simplification, and sociolinguistic typology. Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 118.2: 317404.Google Scholar
Weale, Michael E., Deborah A. Weiss, Rolf. F. Jager, Neil Bradman and Mark. G. Thomas. 2002. Y chromosome evidence for Anglo-Saxon mass migration. Molecular Biology and Evolution 19.7: 10081021.10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004160CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinreich, Uriel, Labov, William and Herzog, Mervin. 1968 [1953]. Empirical foundations for a theory of language change. In Lehmann, Winfred and Malkiel, Yakov (eds.), Directions for Historical Linguistics. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp. 95189.Google Scholar
Woolf, Alex. 2007. Apartheid and economics in Anglo-Saxon England. In Higham, Nicholas (ed.), Britons in Anglo-Saxon England. Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, pp. 115129.10.1515/9781846155185-015CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wrenn, C. L. 1933. Standard Old English. Transactions of the Philological Society 32: 6588.10.1111/j.1467-968X.1933.tb00190.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, Laura. 2000. The Development of Standard English 1300–1800: Theories, Descriptions, Conflicts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, Laura. 2013. The contact origins of Standard English. In Schreier, Daniel and Hundt, Marianne (eds.), English as a Contact Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 5874.10.1017/CBO9780511740060.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, Laura (ed.). 2020. The Multilingual Origins of Standard English. Topics in English Linguistics 107. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.10.1515/9783110687545CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Accessibility standard: WCAG 2.0 A

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

The PDF of this book conforms to version 2.0 of the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG), ensuring core accessibility principles are addressed and meets the basic (A) level of WCAG compliance, addressing essential accessibility barriers.

Content Navigation

Table of contents navigation
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.
Index navigation
Provides an interactive index, letting you go straight to where a term or subject appears in the text without manual searching.

Reading Order & Textual Equivalents

Single logical reading order
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.
Short alternative textual descriptions
You get concise descriptions (for images, charts, or media clips), ensuring you do not miss crucial information when visual or audio elements are not accessible.

Visual Accessibility

Use of colour is not sole means of conveying information
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.

Structural and Technical Features

ARIA roles provided
You gain clarity from ARIA (Accessible Rich Internet Applications) roles and attributes, as they help assistive technologies interpret how each part of the content functions.

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×