Al-Hoorie et al. (2024) have described L2 Motivational Self System research as having a “validation crisis.” In this response, I offer a brief history of recent motivation research to contextualize how we reached this point. I then discuss measurement invariance testing, the purpose of which is to ensure that the proposed measurement model holds across groups or time. Crucially, invariance testing is a necessary precursor to subsequent analyses because if invariance is not upheld, it is impossible to know whether differences reflect true underlying differences in the latent construct or are simply the byproduct of a changing measurement model. I argue that by combining measurement invariance testing with open science practices, we can create and validate better measurement models while cultivating a better understanding of their scope of application.

The duality of human nature, consisting of positive and negative personality traits, has intrigued scholars in different fields. Despite an overwhelming dominance of research on positive characteristics, particularly in the field of education, negative traits, such as those constituting the Dark Triad (DT; i.e., Psychopathy, Narcissism, and Machiavellianism) have been confirmed to be associated with both positive and detrimental outcomes. This paper aims to investigate the potential influence of these aversive traits on second language (L2) learning outcomes—L2 learning motivation, engagement, achievement, and willingness to communicate. L2 learners from a single country (n = 431) participated in this study. Multiple structural equation models (SEMs) were run to analyze the links and the directionality of significant effects. Overall, among the undesirable DT traits, Psychopathy and Narcissism were both positive and negative predictors of the L2 outcomes, while Machiavellianism unexpectedly emerged solely as a positive predictor. The intricacy of the results underscores the vague nature of the effects, pinpointing the need for more caution while examining negative personality traits in education and the L2 contexts. Based on the results of this study, implications and directions for future research on DT and language learning are suggested.

This article explores the utility of content-embedded working memory capacity (WMC) tasks for advancing second language (L2) research. While both complex span and content-embedded tasks implement a dual-task paradigm that requires processing and maintenance of information, they differ in that the former demand maintenance of extraneous memory elements during processing, while the latter demand processing and maintenance of the same elements. Since manipulating information stored in working memory is critical for L2 processing and development, particularly in intentional learning contexts, content-embedded tasks may serve as strong predictors of several linguistic outcomes. We report preliminary evidence suggesting that both content-embedded tasks (available in IRIS [https://www.iris-database.org/details/iv6nR-HD9NQ]) and complex span tasks can be significant predictors of explicit L2 aptitude and L2 reading comprehension, but that content-embedded tasks can show advantages over complex span tasks in some instances. We discuss methodological implications for the measurement of WMC in L2 research.

Additional language speakers (ALSs) often experience anxiety due to challenges posed by their nonstandard pronunciation. Building on these insights, this paper introduces an instrument, the Accent Anxiety Scale (AAS), specifically designed to assess three sources of anxiety that are experienced by ALSs, including (a) apprehension about negative evaluations from other individuals due to their distinctive speech style, (b) concerns about rejection from the target language community because of their “foreign” pronunciation, and (c) anxieties over potential communication hurdles attributed to the intelligibility of their pronunciation. We evaluated the psychometric robustness of the AAS by analyzing data from a total of 474 immigrant and international student ALSs at a predominantly English-speaking Canadian university. Study 1 focused on immigrants (N = 203) and employed exploratory factor and correlational analyses to isolate a concise number of internally consistent and valid items for each subscale. Study 2 extended these analyses to international students (N = 153) and employed confirmatory factor and correlation analyses to further validate the AAS in this population. Study 3 examined international students (N = 118) at two time points to establish the AAS’s temporal stability. These studies yielded robust psychometric evidence for the factor structure, reliability, and validity of the AAS. The findings not only support the use of the AAS as a research instrument but also offer implications for pedagogical strategies aimed at alleviating ALSs’ accent anxiety.

This methodological synthesis surveys study and instrument quality in L2 pronunciation research by scrutinizing methodological practices in designing and employing scales and rubrics that measure accentedness, comprehensibility, and intelligibility. A comprehensive coding scheme was developed, and searches were conducted in several databases. A total of 380 articles (409 samples) that employed 576 target instruments and appeared in peer-reviewed journals from 1977 to 2023 were synthesized. Results demonstrated, among other findings, strengths in reporting several listener and speaker characteristics. Areas in need of improvement include (a) more thorough evaluation and reporting of interrater reliability and instrument validity and (b) greater adherence to methodological transparency and open science practices. We conclude by discussing the implications of these findings for researchers and researcher trainers; by raising awareness of methodological and ethical challenges in psychometric research on L2 speech perception; and by providing recommendations for advancing the quality of instruments in this domain.

In this rejoinder, we provide a historical overview of the emerging critiques of the L2 Motivational Self System and examine the structural and conceptual factors that have perpetuated these unresolved issues. As our analysis shows, a core concern is that the L2 Motivational Self System lacks clear falsifiability criteria, making it difficult to evaluate or revise in light of contradictory evidence. Despite numerous inconsistent or null findings, there appears to be no threshold at which core assumptions are reconsidered. We argue that advancing the field requires a renewed commitment to falsifiability, where constructs are subjected to empirical scrutiny and can, in principle, be shown to be wrong. Beyond technical matters, we acknowledge the emotional and professional challenges involved in confronting evidence that undermines familiar frameworks. We advocate for a shift toward greater theoretical precision, methodological transparency, and openness to critique.

This paper explores how long-term bilingualism affects the production of intervocalic plosive consonants (/p t k b d ɡ/) in the speech of Afrikaans–Spanish bilinguals from Patagonia, Argentina. We performed sociolinguistic interviews with three speaker groups: L1-Afrikaans/L2-Spanish bilinguals (14 speakers, interviewed separately in Spanish and Afrikaans), L1-Spanish comparison speakers from Patagonia (10 speakers), and L1-Afrikaans comparison speakers from South Africa (11 speakers). We analyzed the speech data using three acoustic measures (constriction duration, relative intensity, and percent voicing) to examine the degree of lenition of the target plosives. The results demonstrate a complex interplay of factors that bring about cross-language influence, which varies based on the target phoneme and phonetic measure. Notably, the findings suggest that phenomena that are gradient phonetic processes in both languages of bilingual speakers (such as the lenition of voiceless plosives in Spanish and Afrikaans) pattern differently than phenomena that are phonological in one language but phonetic in the other (such as lenition of voiced plosives in Spanish versus Afrikaans).

Fluency, intelligibility, comprehensibility, and accentedness are important dimensions of second language (L2) pronunciation proficiency representing global, listener-based intuitions. This study meta-analyzed 49 reports from 1995 to 2023, examining 141 effect sizes (Pearson r) to understand their relationships and possible moderators. Three-level meta-analysis models showed weighted mean correlations of .82, .75, .62, .57, and .32 for fluency/comprehensibility, comprehensibility/accentedness, fluency/accentedness, intelligibility/comprehensibility, and intelligibility/accentedness, respectively. Task types moderated correlations for fluency/accentedness, intelligibility/comprehensibility, and intelligibility/accentedness, with controlled tasks leading to higher correlations. Ratings of multiple dimensions by the same listeners tended to result in weaker correlations for fluency/comprehensibility and comprehensibility/accentedness. The findings imply that having an accent does not mean being unintelligible and support prioritizing intelligible and comprehensible speech over accent reduction. The study also highlights an over-reliance on first language speaker norms in L2 pronunciation research and advocates for more transparent reporting.

Morphological knowledge refers to the ability to recognize and use morphemes correctly in syntactic contexts and word formation. This is crucial for learning a morphologically rich language like Finnish, which features both agglutinative and fusional morphology. In Finnish, agglutination occurs in forms like aamu: aamu+lla (‘morning: in the morning’), where a suffix is transparently added. Fusional features, as seen in ilta: illa+lla (‘evening: in the evening’), involve allomorphic stem changes that reduce transparency. We investigated the challenges posed by stem allomorphy for word recognition in isolation and in context for L2 learners and L1 speakers of Finnish. In a lexical decision task, L2 speakers had longer response times and higher error rates for semitransparent inflections, while L1 speakers showed longer response times for both transparent and semitransparent inflection types. In sentence reading, L2 speakers exhibited longer fixation times for semitransparent forms, whereas L1 speakers showed no significant effects. The results suggest that the challenges in L2 inflectional processing are more related to fusional than agglutinative features of the Finnish language.

Lexical proficiency is a multifaceted phenomenon that greatly impacts human judgments of writing quality. However, the importance of collocations’ contribution to proficiency assessment has received less attention than that of single words, despite collocations’ essential role in language production. This study, therefore, investigated how aspects of collocational proficiency affect the ratings that examiners give to English learner essays. To do so, collocational features related to sophistication and accuracy were manipulated in a set of argumentative essays. Examiners then rated the texts and provided rationales for their choices. The findings revealed that the use of lower-frequency words significantly and positively impacted the experts’ ratings. When used as part of collocations, such words then provided a small yet significant additional boost to ratings. Notably, there was no significant effect for increased collocational accuracy. These findings suggest that low-frequency words within collocations are particularly salient to examiners and deserving of pedagogic focus.

Twenty-five years ago, the publication of an article by Pallier, Colomé, and Sebastián-Gallés (2001) launched a new and rapidly evolving research program on how second language (L2) learners represent the phonological forms of words in their mental lexicons. Many insights are starting to form an overall picture of the unique difficulties for establishing functional and precise phonolexical representations in L2; however, for the field to move forward it is pertinent to outline its major emerging research questions and existing challenges. Among significant obstacles for further research, the paper explores the current lack of theoretical agreement on the concept of phonolexical representations and the underlying mechanism involved in establishing them, as well as the variable use of the related terminology (e.g., fuzziness and target-likeness). Methodological challenges involved in investigating phonological processing and phonolexical representations as well as their theoretical implications are also discussed. To conclude, we explore the significance of L2-specific phonological representations for the bottom-up lexical access during casual, conversational speech and how our emerging knowledge of L2 lexical representations can be applied in an instructional setting as two potentially fruitful research avenues at the forefront of the current research agenda.

The present study aims to meta-analyze the reliability of second language (L2) reading assessments and identify the potential moderators of reliability in L2 reading comprehension tests. We examined 3,247 individual studies for possible inclusion and assessed 353 studies as eligible for the inclusion criteria. Of these, we extracted 150 Cronbach’s alpha estimates from 113 eligible studies (years 1998–2024) that reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients properly and coded 27 potential predictors comprising of the characteristics of the study, the test, and test takers. We subsequently conducted a reliability generalization (RG) meta-analysis to compute the average reliability coefficient of L2 reading comprehension tests and identify potential moderators from 27 coded predictor variables. The RG meta-analysis found an average reliability of 0.79 (95% CI [0.78, 0.81]). The number of test items, test piloting, test takers’ educational institution, study design, and testing mode were found to respectively explain 16.76%, 5.92%, 4.91%, 2.58%, and 1.36% of variance in reliability coefficients. The implications of this study and future directions are further discussed.

This study conceptually replicates Cepeda, Coburn, Rohrer, Wixted, Mozer, & Pashler’s (2009, Experiment 1) study on the effects of distributed practice on second language (L2) vocabulary learning to examine its generalizability to a new context and population sample. The secondary focus of the paper is to examine the challenges and affordances of online data collection and participant recruitment sites. Both the original and our study examined the effects of distributed practice on two study sessions to learn L2 vocabulary assessed on a 10-day delayed posttest. Our results showed that the spaced conditions significantly outperformed the massed condition, mirroring the original study’s findings. However, Cepeda et al.’s (2009) participants outscored our participants by 10–20% (in each experimental group) on the posttest. While these findings highlight the benefits of spacing towards learning and memory, they also underscore the challenges researchers may face when conducting experimental research in online environments.

Research on second language (L2) speech learning suggests that incidental perception training can lead to the establishment of non-native phonological categories. The present study contributes to this line of enquiry by investigating how this training is mediated by individual differences in working memory capacity and domain-general auditory processing abilities. In our study, 130 native British English speakers without prior knowledge of Portuguese were randomly assigned to trained or untrained conditions. All participants completed a visual digit span task and an auditory processing test battery. We observed improvements from pretest to post-test in production only, but since both groups improved, these gains cannot be attributed to the incidental perception training. The analysis of the ID measures further confirms the important role played by auditory processing abilities in L2 speech learning. However, more research is needed to better understand the role of incidental perception training and the mediating role of cognitive aptitudes.