To understand the cellular processes related to iron transport and sequestration within the developing pea seed (Pisum sativum), total iron and ferritin iron were analysed in seed coat and embryo tissues of the iron-hyperaccumulating pea mutant, Sparkle [dgl, dgl], and its wild-type parent, cv. Sparkle. For plants grown hydroponically with 2 μM Fe, embryo Fe concentrations averaged 65 μg g−1 dry weight in mature wild-type seeds and 163 μg g−1 dry weight in mature dgl seeds; iron concentrations were also higher in dgl seed coats. Extracted and electrophoretically separated seed proteins were probed with a polyclonal antibody raised against pea seed ferritin. In both genotypes, ferritin was detected in the embryo, but not in the seed coat. Ferritin iron accounted for 92% of the total iron in mature wild-type embryos, but only 42% of the total iron in mature dgl embryos. Radiotracer studies using 59Fe were used to characterize the movement of iron within the seed coat. Unequal distribution of 59Fe in opposing sections taken from the two hemispheres of the seed coat demonstrated that iron was symplastically phloem unloaded. These results suggest that iron resides transiently within the nonvascular seed coat cells and that all cells at the inner surface of the seed coat may be involved in the release of iron to the embryo apoplast. However, the form of iron resident within the seed coat and/or taken up by the embryo is presently unknown.

The endogenous ABA contents of dormant and nondormant barley grains were determined following application of different compounds to break dormancy. The chemicals used for breaking of dormancy in intact dormant grains were weak and strong acids, alcohols, hydrogen peroxide, cyanide, nitrate, salicylic acid, gibberellic acid and fusicoccin. The dormancy-breaking compounds could be classified into two major groups: compounds that caused a decrease in endogenous ABA (class I) and compounds which did not affect endogenous ABA (class II). Class I compounds included gibberellic acid, ethanol, hydrogen peroxide, nitrate, salicylic acid; class II compounds were fusicoccin, acid (H2SO4), sodium azide, n-caproic acid. In addition, these dormancy-breaking compounds were able to stimulate the germination rate when applied to embryos isolated from dormant grains. The concentrations necessary for stimulation of germination of isolated embryos were much lower than the concentrations for breaking the dormancy of intact grains. After embryos were isolated from dormant grains and incubated in water, ABA was determined in both embryos and in the incubation media. The class I compounds stated above also reduced ABA content in the incubation medium of isolated embryos, while class II compounds had no effect on ABA content of the medium. External application of ABA could overcome the effect of dormancy-breaking compounds of class I but not of class II. The results suggest that in the presence of the agents belonging to class II, ABA responsiveness of isolated embryos from dormant grains is decreased, compared to nontreated embryos.

This is the first report on the SEed Ecological Database (SEED) being developed under the co-ordination of the author. In its first version the database will cover physical characteristics of seeds, such as: slenderness (length/width), flatness (thickness/width) and thousand-seed weight. The list of species encompasses all seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) native or naturalized in Hungary (about 2450 species). Two examples to demonstrate the power of SEED are included. The significantly lower slenderness values of Hungarian C4 grasses (compared with C3 types), shown in the first example, is a new contribution to understanding the ecology of C4 grasses. In the second example heavier seed weights of shade plants are statistically demonstrated, compared to their heliophilous congeners with the same life forms. The 113 congeneric species pairs considered are derived from a wide range of plant families.

A method is proposed for assessing the maturity and quality of seeds, based on measuring the amount of chlorophyll fluorescence (CF) signals of intact seeds. In general, the amount of chlorophyll is directly related to the degreening process and thus the maturity. Cabbage seeds (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) were separated into three subsamples based on the CF signals of the individual intact seeds. Seeds with the lowest amount of CF had the highest percentage of germination and normal seedlings. In a controlled deterioration test, the subsample with the lowest CF signal had slightly lower germination and normal seedling percentages than the non-treated seeds, whereas the seeds with the highest CF signals had much lower germination and normal seedling percentages. Advantages of the CF method for determining seed maturity and seed quality are its high sensitivity and fully non-destructive nature and the high speed at which the fluorescence is generated and measured.

Capeweed (Arctotheca calendula) seeds were found to be dormant at harvest. Effects of duration and temperature of storage under ‘laboratory’ and ‘natural’ conditions, growth regulators, stratification and age of seeds, were studied on the germination of dormant seeds. Three factors imposed on seeds were found to promote germination of capeweed: (i) allowing seed to age, either in storage, buried in soil or during stratification (germination of 18-month-old seeds was up to 60% higher than that of fresh seeds); (ii) the presence of light (the average germination percentage of seeds exposed to light during storage was 3.2-fold greater than that of seed stored in the dark); and (iii) the application of growth regulators, particularly gibberellic acid, enhanced by scarification (GA3 and ethephon promoted germination by up to 58% when applied to scarified seeds). Other factors, e.g. temperature and depth of storage, influenced germination but were less critical to its success. These results provide a preliminary assessment of the importance of these factors in controlling dormancy in seeds of capeweed.

Untreated (control) tomato seeds germinated at temperatures ranging from 15 to 35°C. There was a positive linear relationship between the rate of germination (expressed as the reciprocal of time to obtain 50% germination) and temperature up to the thermal optimum. At higher temperatures, the negative relationship was also linear. The thermal optimum for seed germination was 27–28°C and the lower and maximal temperatures were around 9 and 40°C, respectively. Germination was strongly reduced in atmospheres containing less than 10% oxygen. After pretreatment at 15°C in a polyethylene glycol-8000 solution at –1.0 MPa, seeds germinated faster in a wider range of temperatures, and this stimulatory effect remained after drying back the seeds. Such a pretreatment did not change the optimal and maximal temperatures of germination, but decreased the lower temperature to about 6°C. The beneficial effect of osmoconditioning increased as the duration of the treatment increased and was maximal after 5–7 days. Osmotic pretreatment also reduced the sensitivity of seeds to oxygen deprivation; 50% of the seeds germinated within 7 days in 5% oxygen. The range of temperatures and the concentrations of oxygen which were effective in osmoconditioning were very similar to those which allowed the germination of untreated seeds. In particular, the optimal temperature (27–28°C) and oxygen concentrations (more than 10%) for osmoconditioning and germination were the same. These results confirm that the beneficial effect of osmotic pretreatment (priming) corresponds to the realization of germination sensu stricto (phase II of the germination process).

Seed-bank dynamics of C. controversa, a common tree in Japanese temperate forests, were investigated at Ogawa Forest Reserve by direct measurement of seed input, soil seed density, and seedling output (germination of soil seeds), together with two field experiments on postdispersal seed mortality. Soil seed density varied from 4 to 233 m−2 in the site near conspecific adults (<5 m horizontally from crown edge), and 0 to 18 m−2 in far sites (≥5 m) during the 1988–92 period. Seed input occurred only in 1988 and 1990: 190–740 m−2 at the sites near conspecific adults, and 4–20 m−2 at the far sites. Seedling output was observed every year and accounted for 0–15% of the loss from the seed bank, occasionally 30–60%. Seeds buried at 5-cm depth suffered moderate mortality (c. 0.2 year−1) by fungal pathogens. In contrast, seeds experimentally placed on the ground suffered higher mortality (0.5–1 year−1) through predation by ground mammals, probably wood mice. In the experiment, seeds whose mesocarp was removed survived much better. On the other hand, distance itself did not appear to affect post-dispersal mortality of seeds. Seeds in canopy gaps also tended to suffer higher mortality. Current spatial pattern and mode of seed dispersal should decrease the potential ability of the seed bank of this species to colonize safe sites. Rare and unpredictable events might increase the contribution of the seed-bank strategy to regeneration in this forest.

The chloride salts of Cd or Ni were added to the nutrient solution in which soybean (Glycine max) plants were grown and the response of the plants to these pollutants examined. Both metals markedly reduced plant biomass and seed production. Accumulation was mostly in the roots. Nickel was more mobile than Cd, reaching higher levels in all plant parts, especially seeds. Within the tissues of mature seeds, the highest concentrations of Ni were found in the axis and testa. The highest concentrations of Cd were in the testa and cotyledon, and the lowest in the axis. When expressed on a per seed basis, metal contents of these organs increased with developmental age. Nickel amounts were lower in the pods than the seeds for all growth stages, however there was no significant difference for Cd. Cadmium reduced mature seed mass. This effect was mostly due to decreased yields of lipids, protein and carbohydrates. Although the number of seeds per pod declined as a response to Ni, seed mass was unaffected and there was no apparent effect on storage reserves.

Seeds of the geographically-widespread Solidago altissima and S. nemoralis and the narrow-endemic S. shortii were buried in pots of soil and placed in a glasshouse without temperature control. After 0.3–4.3 years of burial, some seeds (21–60%) of all three species were viable and they germinated to 75–100% during 2 weeks of incubation in light at 30/15°C. Soil samples collected from several population sites of S. altissima, S. nemoralis and S. shortii were placed in the glasshouse and monitored for seedling emergence. During the first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth springs, the number of S. altissima seedlings m−2 emerging was 108–1080, 8–494, 0–520, 0–69, 0–6 and 3, respectively, of S. nemoralis was 108–1122, 17–667, 0–42, 0–6, 0, 0 and 0, respectively, and of S. shortii was 61–1753, 0–25, 0–6, 0, 0 and 0, respectively. More seedlings emerged from disturbed than from non-disturbed soil, but the differences were not significant. Thus, although some seeds of all three species buried in pots remained viable in soil throughout the 4.3-year burial period, longevity was greater and size of seed bank larger in field-collected soil samples containing seeds of the geographically-widespread species than in those containing seeds of the narrow endemic. Although 34 studies have reported seeds of 17 species of Solidago present in soil seed banks, the present study is the first to show, conclusively that Solidago can form a persistent seed bank.

Methanol accumulates in axis tissues of maturing soybean seeds, correlating with preharvest seed deterioration. Accumulation of methanol appears to be associated with the enzymic demethylation of pectin methyl esters by pectinesterase (PE; EC 3.1.1.11). To characterize PE in developing and maturing soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) seeds, enzyme activity was assayed in axis and cotyledon tissues. Activity per g fresh weight was 20–25 times higher in axes than in cotyledons with highest activities between 45 and 60 days after flowering (DAF). Twenty to 33% of the total PE activity was in the ‘soluble’ form (extracted with water, 0.5 M sucrose, 1 M sucrose and water). Soluble and cell-wall-bound PE (subsequently extracted with 1 M NaCI) were purified and characterized from axes of seeds at 45–60 DAF. Purification of PE was achieved through concentration of extracts by ultra-filtration, precipitation with ammonium sulfate (30–80% saturation), dialysis, gel filtration on Sephadex G-75 columns, and ion exchange chromatography on CM Sepharose CL-6B. Further purification of both soluble and bound PE was by isoelectric focusing (IEF) on ultrathin layers of polyacrylamide gel with simultaneous detection of protein and PE activity. It was possible to follow seven bands exhibiting PE activity with pl values between 6.0 and 9.5 in 1 M NaCI-extracts of total homogenates. Differences in the IEF patterns of bound and soluble PE were observed. Whereas the bound enzyme exhibited more basic PE bands (pl 8–9.5), the soluble enzyme had more active bands at pl 6.5, 7.0 and 7.5. The Mr was close to 33 000 and the pH optimum was 7.8 for both soluble and bound PE.

On the basis of embryo and seed colour, morphology, accumulation of fresh and dry weight, seed development of Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis) can be divided into 10 discrete but contiguous stages. Precocious germination (PG) occurs in the seeds of a Chinese cabbage mutant on the parent plant mainly during the maturation period (from stage 5 to 8), with either the radicle or the cotyledon protruding out of the testa. All plants of the mutant line produce some PG seeds, but among the seeds, only 18% (maximum) germinate precociously. The developing mutant seeds have higher water contents and lower dry weights than those of the wild-type and are less tolerant of desiccation. The testa structure of Chinese cabbage seed is similar to that of other Brassica species. In developing seeds, it consists of the epidermis, subepidermis, palisade layer and pigmented layers, while in the mature dry seeds, all the cell layers except the palisade layer are crushed into non-cell structures and are stacked on the outer and inner faces of the palisade layer; the aleurone layer is fused to the testa. An alteration in testa structure of the mutant seeds (both non-germinated and precociously-germinated seeds) is probably related to PG. The secondary cell wall materials are less, or not deposited on the radial and basal walls of the palisade cells on the adaxial side of the testa, which could result in a weaker mechanical restraint, thus leading to PG.

Seed longevity of plant species is an important topic in restoration management, and little is known about the effects of environmental conditions on seed survival and longevity under natural conditions. Therefore, the effect of groundwater level on the survival of seeds in the soil seed bank of a natural grassland community was investigated. Large soil cores, mesocosms, were sampled from a grassland site and transferred to two basins under a glass roof. The mesocosms were subjected to different groundwater-level treatments (high and low, respectively 5 and 30 cm below the soil surface) for nearly three years. After that period the soil seed bank of the mesocosms was sampled. In total 15 789 seeds of 38 taxa emerged from the experiment. Significant differences between the number of viable seeds that emerged in the two treatments were found for several species. More seeds of Glyceria fluitans, Cardamine pratensis and Myosotis palustris germinated in the high water-level treatment, whereas fewer seeds of Juncus spp., Cerastium fontanum and Stellaria media were found in this treatment than in the low water-level treatment. The experiment showed that the anoxic conditions prevailing in the high water-level treatment were beneficial to the survival of seeds of species of wet grassland communities. Species of dry grasslands, although represented by only two species, survived better under aerobic conditions.

The drying rate of whole seeds of Ekebergia capensis (Meliaceae) was shown to influence the response to desiccation, with rapidly dried seeds surviving to lower water contents. Short-term rapid drying (to water contents higher than those leading to viability loss) actually increased the rate of germination. The form of the time course of decline of axis water content varied with drying rate; slow drying could be described by an exponential function, whereas with rapid drying initial water loss was faster than predicted by an exponential function. These observations suggest that slow drying brought about homogeneous dehydration and that the rapid drying was uneven across the tissue. This raised the possibility that the different responses to dehydration were a function of different distributions of water in the axis tissue under the two drying regimes. However, ultrastructural observations indicated that different deleterious processes may be occurring under the different drying treatments. It was tentatively concluded that a major cause of viability loss in slowly dried material was likely to be a consequence of aqueous-based processes leading to considerable membrane degradation. Uneven distribution of tissue water could not be rejected as a contributory cause of the survival of rapidly dried seeds to low bulk water contents. The differential response to dehydration at different drying rates implies that it is not possible to determine a ‘critical water content’ for viability loss by recalcitrant seeds.

The papers in this special section of Seed Science Research are products of a symposium on Seed Biology and Technology: Applications and Advances, held in Fort Collins, Colorado, on 13–16 August, 1997. The symposium was convened as a cooperative effort of Regional Research Project W-168 within the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Cooperative States Research, Extension and Education Service (CSREES) system. Regional Research Projects are authorized by the Hatch Act, which established the Agricultural Experiment Station (AES) system in the United States (US Code). This is a system in which land-grant institutions in each state conduct research and education programmes relevant to agriculture, the environment and society. Regional Research projects are a mechanism ‘for cooperative research in which two or more State agricultural experiment stations are cooperating to solve problems that concern the agriculture of more than one state.’ Such projects ‘can provide the solution to a problem of fundamental importance or fill an important gap in our knowledge from the standpoint of the present and future agriculture of the region’

The longevity of neem, Azadirachta indica, seeds from African Sahelian (Burkina Faso) and Asian (Sri Lanka) provenances was studied over two years of storage under different conditions of moisture and temperature. After drying to equilibrium moisture content (MC) at different relative humidities at 20°C, seeds were placed in open storage at 20°C or hermetically sealed in packets at temperatures ranging from −20 to +20°C. There was hardly any difference in storage behaviour between seed batches / lots, whatever their provenance. Seeds originating from mature yellow fruits lived longer than seeds from green or brown fruits. In all storage experiments with seeds having MCs ≥ 10%, viability was preserved best at 10−15°C, indicating that neem seed is chilling (and freezing) sensitive. There was no survival longer than 2 years under these conditions. At MCs of 4–8%, seeds were considerably more tolerant of low temperature storage and had 40–60% viability after 2 years at all temperatures tested (−20 to +20°C). However, the seeds were sensitive to imbibitional stress, which could be alleviated by imbibition at temperatures of 25–30°C or above. The difficult storage behaviour of neem seed seems to stem from: (1) the sensitivity to low temperatures at MCs ≥ 10%; (2) the extreme sensitivity to imbibitional stress after storage at ≤ 8% MC; (3) underestimation of the water activity due to the high oil content of the neem seeds, causing unexpected metabolic stress in the higher MC and temperature range.