The Manapany day gecko Phelsuma inexpectata is a Critically Endangered species endemic to Réunion Island in the Indian Ocean. Studying its geographical distribution and its evolution is important for developing effective biodiversity conservation strategies. We evaluated past and current distributions of P. inexpectata using records from 2008–2020 and through recent, intensive field surveys (230 person-days, 2020–2022). We found that its past distribution has declined by more than 28% (5.12 ha), from 19.44 ha to 14.32 ha. In natural habitats, the distribution of P. inexpectata has been strongly affected, declining by c. 45%, but we identified new areas of occurrence (10.72 ha) through field surveys. Most of these new areas (79%) were found in anthropogenic habitats where the species had not been documented before. The current distribution of P. inexpectata covers c. 24 ha, of which 75% is located in urban areas such as gardens and green urban spaces. Moreover, our field survey showed that at least 10% of its range is now colonized by the invasive gold-dust day gecko Phelsuma laticauda. This survey provides an essential baseline for tracking the future distribution of this threatened species and its potential invasive competitor, and for monitoring how changes to its habitat affect the distribution of P. inexpectata.

Ecosystem disturbance is known to negatively affect herpetofauna. There are, however, few studies on the impact of volcanic ash fallout on reptile species and no known publications on any impacts on the family Phyllodactylidae. The Barbados leaf-toed gecko Phyllodactylus pulcher is a Critically Endangered lizard species endemic to the island of Barbados. During 9–22 April 2021, La Soufrière volcano on the neighbouring island of Saint Vincent erupted, leading to significant ash fallout on Barbados. Following this event, indices of body condition for the Barbados leaf-toed gecko declined significantly. However, monitoring over 17 months showed a gradual return to pre-ashfall indices for both males and females. Population-wide tail autotomy rates did not change significantly following the event. The proportion of gravid females significantly declined immediately after the ashfall event, although this exceeded the pre-ash proportion of the following year. Additionally, the proportion of females bearing two rather than one egg doubled in the year following the ashfall. It is unknown whether the decline in body condition is a direct consequence of exposure to ash or a secondary effect of declines in insects and vegetation cover; however, a synergy between these factors is probable.

Climate and land-use changes are major threats to amphibian conservation. However, amphibians on tropical oceanic islands appear to have been overlooked with regards to their vulnerability to global anthropogenic threats. Here we examine whether there are gaps in research evaluating the vulnerability of tropical oceanic island amphibians to climate and land-use changes. We carried out a systematic review of the literature on experimental studies published during 1 July 1998–30 June 2022, to evaluate whether there are knowledge gaps in relation to geographical scope, taxonomic representation, life stage assessment, the factors affecting amphibians and how species and populations respond to these factors. Of 327 articles on climate change and 451 on land-use change, the research of only 18 was carried out on tropical oceanic islands, only on anurans, and < 20% of the authors were affiliated with an oceanic island institution. These 18 studies were on only five islands, and the range of families and life stages assessed was limited. We also found uneven research into the factors affecting oceanic island amphibians and their responses; analyses involving the effect of temperature on amphibian range expansion or contraction were the most common, with few studies of the effects of salinity. The scarcity and unevenness of research from oceanic islands limit our understanding of the effects of climate and land-use changes on amphibians. We discuss potential reasons for these knowledge gaps and recommend ways to address them, such as more equitable distribution of resources and provision of training and research opportunities for island-based biologists.

The pelagic thresher shark Alopias pelagicus is an Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered species primarily threatened by overfishing. Indonesia is the world's largest shark fishing nation, and in Alor Island, thresher sharks have been a primary target for small-scale fishing communities for decades, sustaining subsistence livelihoods and serving as a protein source. With thresher shark populations continuously declining, there is a need for conservation measures to reduce shark mortality from fishing, while also securing the well-being of coastal communities. This study presents results and lessons learnt from a multi-faceted effort to reduce communities’ dependence on this Endangered shark species through a livelihood-based intervention complemented by collaborative species management and community outreach. Using a theory-based and statistical research design, we describe the approach taken in our intervention and its conservation outcomes. Total thresher shark catches were 91% lower among fishers who participated in our intervention compared to non-participants. Participating fishers also experienced increases in their income, in some cases by up to 525% relative to the income before the intervention. Occasional violations and challenges in the form of socio-political conflicts also occurred, yet these incidents acted as catalysts for regulatory change and reinforced stakeholder collaboration. This suggests overall positive outcomes and the potential for continued social change in shark conservation in the region over the long term. Our findings outline some generalizable lessons learnt for designing and implementing bottom-up livelihood-based interventions in other contexts.

Island-endemic arthropods are understudied species and likely to be highly threatened with extinction. Analysis of IUCN Red List assessments can be used to highlight important microhabitats requiring conservation for the effective management of island-endemic arthropod biodiversity. We synthesized information on the 296 island-endemic arthropod species assessed as Critically Endangered as of April 2024, the geography of the islands to which they are endemic, and the broad threats they face. These species comprised 33 taxonomic orders, across which an average of 53% of species were limited entirely to tiny, confined areas of habitat: caves, high elevation areas, isolated pools or sea stacks. These micro-refugia are most utilized by crustaceans and least utilized by myriapods. Caves and pools are the most important habitats on temperate islands where habitat degradation threatens crustaceans. On small tropical islands where arachnids and hexapods are threatened by invasive species, refugia are mostly in high elevation areas. Sea stacks appear to be effective refugia from invasive species only for threatened island-endemics with notable long-distance dispersal adaptation. None of the refugia appear effective in sustaining arthropod species immediately threatened by climate change. Using the interaction between arthropod life history, habitat and threats, it is possible to generalize micro-refugia that (1) should be immediately targeted for management, and (2) could yield undescribed or presumed-extinct species. Prioritizing such refugia for management and research can guide efficient expenditure of local capacity. In our case study, on Ascension Island, micro-refugia for seven endemic arthropods covered < 0.1% of the island's total area.

Human-induced pressures such as climate and land-use changes in the Anthropocene disproportionately threaten island ecosystems and the endemic species they host. Shedding light on the ecological needs of island species is key to the conservation of these fragile ecosystems and their unique species. Here we present the ecological needs of a bat species endemic to Sardinia, the long-eared bat Plecotus sardus, and analyse the relationship between this Critically Endangered species and the insular environment at different spatial scales to inform action for its conservation. We show that besides displaying a unique phenology and roost use, the species is closely associated with the dry broadleaf forests of native oaks Quercus ilex and Quercus suber at all scales and, in contrast, is negatively affected by coniferous stands, open pastures and urban environments. Our results not only provide key information for the conservation of P. sardus but also provide insights into the unique adaptations of insular endemic species to the fragile island ecosystems, highlighting the importance of ecological studies to informing conservation in biodiversity hotspots. We also demonstrate that protection and restoration of key habitats, particularly within 2 km of roosts, are key to protecting the few known reproductive colonies.

Large carnivore conservation in human-dominated landscapes is a complex issue, often marked by the stark contrast between those who hold deep-rooted animosity towards these animals and those who welcome their presence. The survival of the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx in Europe relies on effective coexistence with humans in multi-use areas. We explored the experiences and perceptions of local hunters and pastoralists regarding the return of the lynx to the Giffre Valley, France, and mapped lynx distribution based on the probability of site use while accounting for detection probability. We conducted in-depth interviews with 29 respondents to gather data on lynx sightings, rationale for hunting and pastoralism, and perceptions of lynxes. We found that 45% of respondents had detected lynxes in the last 40 years, with an estimated site use of 0.66 ± SE 0.33 over the last decade, indicating there was a 66% probability of lynxes using the sites during that time period. Our results suggest that hunting and pastoralism in the region are rooted in a desire to carry on local traditions and connect with the natural world. Respondents generally tolerated the presence of lynxes, perceiving few threats to their livelihoods and activities, and expressing a willingness to coexist peacefully. However, some identified future challenges that could arise with the return of large carnivores to the valley and highlighted scenarios that could lead to a decline in tolerance. This study emphasizes the valuable knowledge of local hunters and pastoralists and their potential role in lynx population monitoring and conservation. Integrating stakeholder values in decision-making processes is crucial for inclusive and sustainable responses to promote biodiversity.

Negative human–wildlife interactions are a growing problem, particularly for people living near protected areas and wildlife refuges. In Kenya, African savannah elephants Loxodonta africana threaten food security for subsistence farmers by crop foraging, which can jeopardize conservation efforts if farmers retaliate against elephants. To inform conservation and management, this study had three objectives: (1) to evaluate stakeholder participatory models of human–elephant conflict; (2) to note any novel or underrepresented variables in the models; and (3) to determine if there were indicators for assessing the success of mitigation programmes using a biocultural approach. We conducted participatory modelling sessions in six villages in rural Kenya using fuzzy cognitive mapping (n = 206 participants). Farmers created group visual models with variables related to conflict with elephants. A total of 14 variables were common across all six villages, with the two highest centrality scores (a measure of importance to overall dynamics) associated with income and feelings of security. Most variables fell into two categories: environmental interactions, and policy and management. Multiple variables such as road infrastructure (drivers) and soil compaction (consequences) were identified as aspects of conflicts that are under-reported or absent in scientific literature, as well as potential socio-cultural indicators. The participatory method used is a tool for gaining more refined insights into interactions with elephants, with implications for other complex conservation issues or wildlife interactions. A more holistic view of the impacts of human–elephant interactions as demonstrated here can lead to sustainable, co-developed programmes that benefit both farmer livelihoods and elephant conservation.

The Covid-19 pandemic has had global impacts, leading to changes in human activities and resulting in both positive and negative outcomes for the natural environment. To more fully understand the pandemic’s impact on the conservation of ecosystems and conservation actors or organizations, this research investigated its impact on the Caribbean island nation of Trinidad and Tobago. Data were collected through an online questionnaire and targeted follow up semi-structured interviews. The results showed that the pandemic led to many challenges for some actors, including job loss and cancellation of fieldwork and outreach events. More positively, there were opportunities for some actors to adapt or find new modes of operation, which unexpectedly made some of them more effective at achieving their goals. The results also suggest that the impacts of the pandemic on ecosystems were both positive and negative. On the positive side, curfews and lockdowns restricted access to natural areas, resulting in benefits such as ecosystem recovery. More negatively, there were issues associated with spikes in illegal activities such as poaching and squatting in protected areas. Respondents suggested that better access to funding and local government support would have helped conservation actors be in a better position to adapt to the changes brought about by the pandemic. The results of this research provide much needed insight into how the Covid-19 pandemic is and will continue to impact conservation actors and their initiatives. Further studies can build on this research to explore the impact of pandemics on conservation in the long term.

Wildlife conservation on private land is an important approach that is increasingly utilized to protect biodiversity and can help contribute to the 30 by 30 target of the Global Biodiversity Framework. In 2018, a Chilean non-profit conservation organization launched a land conservation programme aiming to build long-term partnerships with private landowners to protect critical habitat for threatened amphibians in Chilean Patagonia. Here we describe a new locality record of the micro-endemic, Endangered Barrio's frog Insuetophrynus acarpicus found at a site that joined the programme in 2020. Barrio's frog is ranked 11th in the list of Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered amphibians. Our systematic literature search showed that most aspects of the natural history and ecology of this species are unknown, limiting our ability to provide actionable science to inform its conservation. The newly described Barrio's frog population is the eighth known locality of this species and one of only three occurring within a protected area. Habitat quality assessments indicated optimal conditions for most of the measured habitat parameters in the high-gradient stream where the species occurs. This case study illustrates that long-term partnerships between private landowners and conservationists can be used as an effective tool to protect the habitat of highly threatened amphibians.

Illegal hunting of migratory birds across the Mediterranean region is a serious international conservation issue with population-level impacts. We analysed photographs posted on social media platforms to assess the bird species illegally targeted in Lebanon. During 2011–2023 we reviewed 1,844 photographs publicly posted by poachers on Facebook and Instagram. In these images we identified 212 bird species, of which 94% are legally protected. Many are species of conservation concern, with 19 listed as threatened or Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List and 33% experiencing population declines in Europe. The five bird species with the most individuals illegally killed were the barn swallow Hirundo rustica, blackcap Sylvia atricapilla, European bee-eater Merops apiaster, Eurasian golden oriole Oriolus oriolus and ortolan bunting Emberiza hortulana. Raptors and other large soaring birds were particularly prevalent, with 35 species of raptor (particularly the European honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus, Eurasian sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus, common kestrel Falco tinnunculus, short-toed snake-eagle Circaetus gallicus and Levant sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes) as well as storks, pelicans and cranes. Protected mammals were also posted as trophies, including the Near Threatened striped hyaena Hyaena hyaena. Poachers were present in 44% of photographs and were clearly identifiable 89% of the time, showing little concern about posting illegal activities on publicly accessible social media platforms. Our study is the first to use social media as a tool for assessing illegal hunting activities in Lebanon. We discuss both the use and limitations of this approach, as well as the ways in which social media can be utilized by law enforcement, to promote legal hunting or hunting alternatives and improve conservation education.

E-commerce applications have significantly changed how people transact with each other. This includes digital advances that drive illegal wildlife trade. In Indonesia, the Conservation Act of 1990 was enacted before the internet revolution and does not, therefore, adequately cover online illegal wildlife trade. In this study we identified wildlife traded illegally through advertisements published by five large national e-commerce companies and one social media platform operating in Indonesia, using 39 keywords. We also analysed data on wildlife cybercrime court case outcomes, associated criminal networks and their modus operandi. Over 12 months, we found 996 advertisements for wildlife and wildlife products, including of 45 nationally protected species, from 421 accounts. Amongst the six platforms monitored, Facebook Marketplace had the highest illegal wildlife trade traffic. We found that those prosecuted for online illegal wildlife trade were given low sentences. Our analysis of wildlife legislation, focus group discussions and expert interviews showed that the Government of Indonesia Trade Law (2014) and Law on Electronic Information and Transactions (2008) cannot be used to prosecute online illegal wildlife trade cases because these laws do not acknowledge regulations for protected species. Our study emphasizes the urgency of revising the Conservation Act and changing the definition of trade to include advertisements of protected species. We recommend development of screening tools for advertisements and accounts on e-commerce platforms, review of community/user guidelines to prohibit trade of protected species, and strengthening the approach of combining multi-context laws with stakeholder cooperation to prosecute online illegal wildlife trade cases.

Despite thousands of individuals entering the illegal wildlife trade each year, assessments of pangolin populations are largely non-existent, even in areas with high exploitation and limited personnel and field equipment. Although pangolins have unique keratin-based scales, there is no universal scale-marking method for individuals despite some pangolin conservation programmes utilizing marking for reference and cataloguing. Each programme currently establishes and manages its own system, resulting in inconsistencies and limiting data sharing. To facilitate pangolin monitoring and research, we developed a standardized method for assigning individual identification numbers, which we call the Pangolin Universal Notching System. This system is neither resource nor training intensive, which could facilitate its adoption and implementation globally. Its application could help to address knowledge gaps in pangolin ageing, reproduction, survivorship, migration and local trafficking patterns, and could be used in combination with other tagging techniques for research on pangolin biology.