Book contents
- Testing and the Paradoxes of Fairness
- Reviews
- Testing and the Paradoxes of Fairness
- Copyright page
- Dedication
- Annotated Table of Contents
- Preface
- Acknowledgments
- Chapter 1 A Brief Recounting of the First Four Millennia of Testing
- Chapter 2 Why Tests Are so Widely Disliked
- Chapter 3 The Origins and Consequences of Mental Testing in the U.S. Military
- Chapter 4 Testing in Grades K-12
- Chapter 5 Licensing Examinations
- Chapter 6 Admission Testing for Higher Education
- Chapter 7 Tests Used for Merit-Based Scholarships
- Chapter 8 Using Student Test Scores to Evaluate Teachers: An Assessment of Value-Added Models
- Chapter 9 Dividing Test Scores into Subcomponents
- Chapter 10 On Cost Functions in Testing
- Chapter 11 Evidence in Science: Should We Use Data and What Data Can We Trust?
- Chapter 12 Three Cautionary Tales of Zombie Ideas about Testing
- Chapter 13 Coda
- References
- Index
Chapter 1 - A Brief Recounting of the First Four Millennia of Testing
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 10 October 2025
Book contents
- Testing and the Paradoxes of Fairness
- Reviews
- Testing and the Paradoxes of Fairness
- Copyright page
- Dedication
- Annotated Table of Contents
- Preface
- Acknowledgments
- Chapter 1 A Brief Recounting of the First Four Millennia of Testing
- Chapter 2 Why Tests Are so Widely Disliked
- Chapter 3 The Origins and Consequences of Mental Testing in the U.S. Military
- Chapter 4 Testing in Grades K-12
- Chapter 5 Licensing Examinations
- Chapter 6 Admission Testing for Higher Education
- Chapter 7 Tests Used for Merit-Based Scholarships
- Chapter 8 Using Student Test Scores to Evaluate Teachers: An Assessment of Value-Added Models
- Chapter 9 Dividing Test Scores into Subcomponents
- Chapter 10 On Cost Functions in Testing
- Chapter 11 Evidence in Science: Should We Use Data and What Data Can We Trust?
- Chapter 12 Three Cautionary Tales of Zombie Ideas about Testing
- Chapter 13 Coda
- References
- Index
Summary
We trace the origins of testing to its civil service roots in Xia Dynasty China 4,000 years ago, to the Middle East in Biblical times, and to the monumental changes in psychometrics in latter half of the twentieth century. The early twentieth century witnessed the birth of the multiple-choice test and a focus on measuring cognitive ability rather than knowledge of content – influenced greatly by IQ and US Army placement testing. Multiple-choice tests provided an objectivity in scoring that had previously eluded the standard essays used in college entrance exams. The field of testing began to take notice of measurement errors and strove to minimize them. Computerized Adaptive Tests (CAT) were developed to accurately measure a person’s ability with the fewest number of items. The future advancement of testing is dependent on a continued process of experimentation to determine what improves and what does not.
Information
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Testing and the Paradoxes of Fairness , pp. 1 - 10Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2025
Accessibility standard: Inaccessible, or known limited accessibility
Why this information is here
This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.Accessibility Information
The PDF of this book is known to have missing or limited accessibility features.
We may be reviewing its accessibility for future improvement, but final compliance is
not yet assured and may be subject to legal exceptions. If you have any questions,
please contact
accessibility@cambridge.org.
Content Navigation
Table of contents navigation
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.
Index navigation
Provides an interactive index, letting you go straight to where a term or subject appears in the text without manual searching.
Provides an interactive index, letting you go straight to where a term or subject appears in the text without manual searching.
Reading Order & Textual Equivalents
Single logical reading order
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.
Short alternative textual descriptions
You get concise descriptions (for images, charts, or media clips), ensuring you do not miss crucial information when visual or audio elements are not accessible.
You get concise descriptions (for images, charts, or media clips), ensuring you do not miss crucial information when visual or audio elements are not accessible.
Full alternative textual descriptions
You get more than just short alt text: you have comprehensive text equivalents, transcripts, captions, or audio descriptions for substantial non‐text content, which is especially helpful for complex visuals or multimedia.
You get more than just short alt text: you have comprehensive text equivalents, transcripts, captions, or audio descriptions for substantial non‐text content, which is especially helpful for complex visuals or multimedia.
Visual Accessibility
Use of colour is not sole means of conveying information
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.
Use of high contrast between text and background colour
You benefit from high‐contrast text, which improves legibility if you have low vision or if you are reading in less‐than‐ideal lighting conditions.
You benefit from high‐contrast text, which improves legibility if you have low vision or if you are reading in less‐than‐ideal lighting conditions.