The term ‘coastal State’ is not defined under UNCLOS despite being one of the most frequently used terms. In the EEZ, UNCLOS confers upon coastal States both exclusive sovereign rights and jurisdiction over natural resources and jurisdiction in relation to artificial islands, installations and structure, marine scientific research and environmental protection. However, the scope of these rights and obligations is not always clearly set out in the relevant provisions, requiring further clarification and elaboration. Moreover, due to the new scope of power given to coastal States in the EEZ, the question has arisen as to how coastal States’ rights and obligations in this new maritime zone, as well as coastal States’ rights and obligations in the territorial sea and the high seas, interact with historic claims arising prior to the entry into force of UNCLOS. This chapter analyses the decisions rendered by UNCLOS tribunals addressing the abovementioned issues and assesses the extent to which they have contributed to clarifying relevant rules relating to coastal States’ rights and obligations under the law of the sea.

Under international humanitarian law, areas can be designated as protected zones. These include demilitarised zones, safety zones, neutralised zones, non-defended localities and hospital zones. The chapter closely assesses the conditions in which these zones could serve to help the plight of animals during war. Although these area-based protections were conceived with anthropocentric interests in mind, they may also provide a measure of protection to animals. However, the requirements imposed by international humanitarian law on the creation of these zones – including the need for consent from the parties to a conflict, and the obligation to refrain from using such zones for any military purposes – are stringent. Moreover, bringing animals into protective areas that may be inhabited by internally displaced persons may incidentally result in detrimental outcomes for animals. In light of these difficulties, the chapter proposes pragmatic solutions to enhance the protection of animals located in these areas. Examples are preparatory measures in peacetime aiming at safeguarding particularly vulnerable animals and the creation of designated eco-centric protected zones.