As the book has progressed we have drawn conclusions about the use of discourse units by L1 and L2 speakers. In this final chapter we return to consider what the research presented has shown us about the nature of short-text MDA, its strengths, weaknesses and the discoveries it has made possible. We also consider where research of this sort may go next.

The book so far has focused on the interaction between L2 and L1 speakers in Chapters 2 to 4 and on how distinct those interactions are, given the same tasks, compared to interactions between L1 and L1 speakers. However, we have no sense of how naturalistic the interactions in the exams that are the focus of these chapters are. In this chapter we present a short-text MDA of discourse units in general conversational English, using the BNC 2014 as our data. The analysis reveals a range of discourse functions at both the micro- and macro-structural levels.

This chapter shifts the analysis to the macro-structural (discourse unit) level. Short-text MDA reveals five dimensions at the discourse unit level (ten distinct functions). This chapter deals with the first three dimensions. The analysis begins with a brief discussion of the first dimension before exploring in depth the second and third dimensions. Throughout the analysis is guided by an exploration of prototypical discourse units – those discourse units most strongly associated with either side of a dimension. This allows an exploration of the roles of the L1 and the L2 speakers in the use of the functions as well as the interaction between discourse unit function and task, level of proficiency and attainment in the examination. These early studies show that that discourse unit functions are sensitive to task in particular and that the role of the examiner in the examination may be seen to vary through discourse unit functions as the proficiency of the L2 speaker increases. The chapter also remarks on links between micro-structural discourse functions and those at the macro-level.

In this chapter the final two dimensions of the TLC are analysed. The four discourse unit functions within those dimensions are once again approached via prototypical discourse units, and task, level of examination and grade of exam are considered as potential sources of variation. Importantly, Narrative emerges in this chapter as a function at the macro-structural level. The analyses show variation by task, level of exam and attainment, and show clearly how the scaffolding behaviour of the examiner influences the selection of micro-structural discourse functions that have an impact on the macro-structural functions present. The chapter argues for the salience of the cooperative principle from Gricean pragmatics as a key organising principle in the discourse observed.

This chapter shifts focus to consider to what extent the behaviours viewed in Chapters 3 and 4 were unique to learners. This is achieved by using a new corpus, the TLC L1 corpus, which is composed of the same exam as in the TLC corpus. However, in this case it is L1 speakers sitting the exam. This allows us to see an overlap between the discourse unit functions selected by L1 speakers undertaking the same tasks as the L2 speakers. The role of micro-structural features, specifically grammatical features, in forming similarities and differences between the two sets of examinees (L1 and L2 speakers) is considered. As part of this, the chapter focuses in on four particular grammatical features – demonstrative determiners, numeral nouns, passives and relative clauses – which seem to link discourse unit to proficiency in the TLC to the extent that they generate differences between discourse unit functions when the TLC and TLC L1 are compared. The chapter also considers, however, the normative nature of the analysis undertaken and notes that individual learners’ performance may vary from the norms examined.

This chapter tests the short-text MDA approach at the micro-structural (turn) level in the TLC. The L2 (examinee) and L1 (examiner) turns are treated separately in an exploration of the discourse functions that are present for each type of speaker. A range of metadata variables are explored to see what effect they have on the use of micro-structural discourse functions. The analysis of learner language finds and discusses six dimensions of functional linguistic variation (L2 communicative functions). When metadata is considered, the findings show variation in learner discourse functions based on the learners’ overall mark and proficiency level in different task types. Functional variation attributable to different L1 backgrounds is also observed. Examiner turns reveal distinct repertoires of discourse functions compared to learners, suggesting the influence of social roles on the discourse of both. Narrative elements are discovered at the micro-structural level. The study sets the stage for further chapters that will explore discourse functions at the macro-structural level, considering their implications for our understanding of discourse analysis and its sensitivity to various factors such as role, proficiency and task.

In this chapter we explore a manually annotated subset of data from the corpora studied in this book, which have been analysed to show the presence of narratives as understood by researchers studying this concept. In this narrative study we return to an exploration of differences arising from L1 and cultural background and, inter alia, conclude that cultural background may have an important role to play in the frequency and nature of narrative. In drawing such conclusions, we refer, where appropriate, to existing research on SLA and narrative. Overall, the study suggests that, while there are similarities between L1 and L2 narrative use, there are also differences, some attributable to the learner, others to the task/context in which the data was gathered.

In this chapter the macro-structures in the TLC, its L1/L1 counterpart and the spoken BNC 2014 are compared. The results broadly divide into three groups: discourse unit functions, which are shared across all three corpora; task-specific discourse unit functions; and a number of discourse unit functions unique to individual corpora. The overall findings are that the construct used in the test in the Trinity corpus is a good match, in terms of discourse unit functions, for everyday conversational English, but also that some apparent differences, especially in Dimension 1, are illusory. The analysis of the BNC and the L1/L1 Trinity corpus leads to a revision of the Dimension 1 data for the L2/L1 Trinity corpus, which has the effect of making all three corpora more similar functionally. The chapter also explores the possibility of meso-structures within the discourse units and uses the concept of face to explain some of its findings. Throughout, the presence of narrative is so salient in all three corpora that the chapter concludes with a decision to explore narrative in more detail.

So far in the book the concept of narrative has been left largely unexplored except in so far as it has arisen as a functional labelling of data emerging from the short-text MDA of the corpora examined. However, while these labels were applied using the expertise of linguists, the fit between narrative so described and narrative as studied by linguists is unclear. This chapter sets the background for the examination of narrative, as defined by the model of Labov and Waletzky, both by introducing the model and working through an example of the intersection of these researchers’ approach to narrative and the micro- and macro-structural analyses in our data.

Various factors affecting language learning are introduced, including demographic variables, and learners’ L1, cultural background and the context of language use, noting that the analysis of learner corpora can enable the exploration of language-learning processes during SLA and across different contexts. Practical challenges involved in building extensive learner corpora, especially spoken learner corpora, are discussed (e.g. variable constraints, scale of data, availability of data). The Trinity Lancaster Corpus (TLC), a spoken corpus based upon a language proficiency test, and two other corpora, are then introduced. The chapter then discusses MDA and its adaptation for short texts (short-text MDA). The chapter describes the challenges of analysing short texts within corpora and explains how short-text MDA may make it possible to explore discourse at both the micro-structural (turn) and macro-structural (discourse units) levels. The chapter concludes by noting that this exploration will lead to a deeper analysis of narrative structures as a result of the findings from the corpora studied in the book using short-text MDA.