Chapter 2 describes the original concepts and related research of the author Brave Heart and Indigenous colleagues. The new operationalization of historical trauma described in the Introduction is applied to this context, for example when it comes to discrimination, intergenerational transmission, and social pathologies. The chapter provides empirical material on, among others, the immediate consequences that fully or partially substantiate the assumptions, including assumed mediating factors of historical trauma effects such as traditional values or cultural identity. The chapter concludes by reviewing the first available studies on healing, involving an adjunct program to group therapy with traditional Indigenous content, as well as empowerment through entrepreneurship programs tailored to youth. The conclusion of the chapter is that not all the possibilities of a broader conceptualization of historical trauma in this area have been realized.

The chapter discusses the only partial coming to terms with the genocide trauma against the background of the socio-economic-political and cultural-religious conditions of this Southeast Asian country. The surviving victims and their descendants suffered severe marginalization in their role: their fates were not really dealt with publicly, and they were not granted the status of historical victors. The psychosocial and social science research conducted in relation to genocide survivors, generally from the late 1990s and largely only in the 2000s and 2010s, mirrored in many respects the international developments. It was mainly researchers from the Global North who published studies on the post-genocidal situation in Cambodia. However, anthropologists from the Global North dealt extensively with certain cultural Cambodian aspects of the genocide aftermath. One cultural syndrome garnered particular attention: baksbat, which is characterized by a subjective feeling of ‘broken courage’. This phenomenon manifests as both a normal reaction and a pathological, exaggerated reaction. The treatment approaches for survivors usually include Buddhist or ethnically mediated rituals as an amalgam alongside internationally developed testimony therapy.

This chapter is an exception because it deals with a real threat to a section of the population that continues to this day. Furthermore, some of the victims of the mafia’s deadly violence (in connection with illegal business) are not seen as ‘innocent victims’, even if they were children and young people who themselves came into conflict with the mafia’s violence. Only one publication describes the mafia violence as a ‘historical trauma’, but many others have exactly the same characteristics as those that would be found in other historical traumas, such as the marginalization of the victims and their relatives. A disproportionate amount of attention is paid to researching the perpetrators rather than the victims. Dysfunctional familism and omertà are described as mediating factors. It is only in the last two decades that a social culture of remembrance has developed, which still has to prevail against the ignorance of the majority of society.

The example of former communist Eastern Europe shows that there are many individual and sociopsychological consequences that still have effects today. This chapter summarizes concepts and findings on ‘historical traumas’ that describe such long-lasting effects. The focus is on the side of the victims and their family descendants and thus also on the moral heirs of the dissidents (e.g., the Russian NGO Memorial). Analogous to developments in psychotraumatology, increasing knowledge in this area can explain psychosocial pathologies but also help develop effective remedies. This includes the development of a culture of remembrance, sociotherapeutic interventions, and increased sensitivity towards those patients and clients who have such a personal legacy. Unlike in other regions of the world with historical trauma, there were no ‘truth and reconciliation commissions’ in which victims and perpetrators interacted directly. A principle of these commissions was that victims could speak out about their politically inflicted suffering and that former perpetrators would face up to their responsibility.

This shorter chapter focuses on one groundbreaking bio-psycho-social network meta-study related to historical trauma in the virtual absence of social science studies. It centers on studies on health and associated health disparities in diaspora populations with migrants from India and Pakistan of the second and third generations. Topics are suicide rates of South Asian women, somatoform symptoms and disorders, and physical health conditions like cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. In addition, an anthology is included on psychiatric, historical, and literary science case studies in which one chapter analyzes the metaphorical use of ‘madness’ as a description of the historical events. It presents small-scale studies from microeconomics on the impact of education, the autoethnography of cultural mourning, and a psychological experiment that examines social identity theory in relation to mutual rejection between Hindus and Muslims. As potential remedies, various forms of commemoration are examined, as they have evolved in India and in the diaspora over the last decade.

Chapter 1, the introductory chapter, outlines the development of psychotraumatology or traumatic stress studies, in which the author was also partly involved. It traces how it came about that the author Brave Heart and others have been presenting concepts on historical trauma since the early 2000s. An operationalized definition with two basic criteria and five consecutive criteria is presented. The following eight contexts from all parts of the world are presented and their selection justified. The first four are typical configurations of historical trauma because they fulfil all the criteria without exception. The last four historical traumas fulfil only some of the criteria, but are each particularly revealing, for example when it comes to the minimization of the victim narrative for political reasons. The method of the coupled scoping review for the book is explained and the target groups of readership are described.

The final chapter of the book offers a reflection on the overarching dimensions that guided the selection of the eight Historical Trauma contexts. Here, the emphasis is placed on the concept of multi-directional memory, a notion derived from memory studies that can be employed to circumvent victimhood competition. Selected concepts related to the HT definition criteria are compared across the different contexts. To this end, a series of flowcharts were developed to illustrate the historical trajectories of the concepts discussed in the book, including conspiracy of silence, victim identity, and value compilations. The comparison of social pathologies and reconciliation is given a broad scope. The concept of healing is addressed, and it is noted that the social and cultural science literature has been reticent to engage in discussions about the reasoned use of the concept that is consistent with evidence-based health interventions and comprehensive psychological and holistic approaches. The outlook addresses the prolificacy of the concept of historical trauma, and the potential dangers associated with its overuse.

Chapter 3 draws on the rich psychological-psychiatric and related literature on the sequelae of the Holocaust. This was the basis for many of the propositions of the historical trauma concept among Indigenous Americans. In this field, many Jewish or Israeli researchers have contributed important theories and concepts, such as the diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder with its precursor terms, the memorial concept ‘Zachor’, survivor guilt, and the just-world hypothesis, among others. In this area, inter- or transgenerational transmission has been extensively studied. The collective narrative of Anne Frank’s memories helped these topics to achieve a level of international acknowledgment that they did not have before. To this day, descendants still experience discrimination. As remedies, significant contributions were made to the development of psychoanalysis and psychotherapy, although these remained largely an individual and not community-based approach. Research into the effectiveness of memorial visits was initiated here in isolated studies.

The chapter on the consequences of the Rwandan genocide against the Tutsi brings many constructive contributions that have been made to improve the situation of those affected. Nevertheless, the consequences of this very short-lived genocide were immense. PTSD and trauma-related cultural syndromes were described as direct consequences, although the latter faced an impediment in prevailing against the dominance of the international (and Global North) vocabulary. Research attributed long-lasting societal problems, which were partially addressed by home-grown governmental programs. A very important topic discussed in the chapter is that of international aid organizations, which were also the producers of scientific contributions in most cases. These include contributions on interethnic trust and reconciliation. Some, especially local authors, refer to African values such as Ubuntu, which they argue should play a role in healing or reconciliation.

Chapter 4 offers larger excursions into other concepts and ideas that have been discussed in the context of African American or Black Psychology for decades. Among other things, it goes back to W. E. B. Du Bois, but also to more controversial concepts such as that of the ‘post-traumatic slave syndrome’. The consequences of racism are given a great deal of coverage. The relevant research on the disadvantages and inequalities of African American communities is discussed. Particular emphasis is placed on cultural mistrust and medical mistrust, the latter of which stands in the way of epidemiological research. The positive value orientations of Afrocentrism and associated Black Psychology identity studies are a preparation for the presentation of the remedies, which include empowerment, storytelling, and counter-narratives. All of this has a broad basis in the work of African-American expert authors.