Introduction

For decades, healthcare systems have been struggling with rising expenditure. The hospitals in developed countries consume up to 40% of healthcare resources (Eurostat Statistics Explained, 2016). Governments, in order to step up control over the costs of in-patient care, have implemented special methods of payment for medical services, such as the case-mix systems, as well as introduced professional managers into the medical setting and induced competition between hospitals (Miszczyńska and Antczak, 2020; Rusch, 2016). Medical professionals and managers are both agents ‘hired’ by the society to protect its welfare.

Introduction

J. McCarthy is considered the father of artificial intelligence. In the mid-1950s, McCarthy defined artificial intelligence as the science and engineering of intelligent machines, in particular smart computer programs that enabled the use of computers to understand human intelligence (Malucha, 2018, p. 53). The concept of the Internet of Things (IoT) evolved from the activities initiated in the 1950s and aimed at creating artificial intelligence in the late 1990s. It was first used in 1999 by K. Asthon during the presentation of Procter & Gamble. As the creator of the discussed issue notes (Asthon, 2010, p. 7), the combination of RFID (radio-frequency identification), which was modern at that time, and the possibilities offered by using the Internet, was much more than just an attempt to raise the interest of the management board. At present, the idea has found a permanent place in business in functional and political terminology (e.g., the Digital Single Market Strategy proposed by the European Commission). In its nature, the Internet of Things is explored with particular intensity in areas related to computer science and the application of tools used in communication, however, more and more often it is taken up by scientists dealing with other disciplines, including economics and management.

Introduction

The new Act on Higher Education and Science, enacted in 2018, has fundamentally shifted the principles of functioning for the higher education sector in Poland. In the wake of this, these institutions were faced with the need to change their previous strategies as well as their approach to creating them. One priority resulting from the act was research activity, reflected in highly scored publications and projects that generate revenues. The ranking mechanism of evaluating scientific disciplines has caused the need to maximize effects in this regard. As a result, higher education institutions have adopted new strategies, giving priority to the aspects of evaluating scientific disciplines. The process of their operationalization has included various mechanisms of influencing the effect of maximization. These strategies, to a much bigger extent than before, started resembling solutions used in business. The purpose of the chapter is to present the modified approach to creating strategies for higher education institutions caused by the current conditions of the operation of these entities. In order to reflect the contemporary tendencies, the authors will present an analysis of two example institutions where the strategies have been adopted, as well as the approach to strategy creation itself.

Introduction

The emergence of modern techniques and new communication tools, most notably the internet, has revolutionized the approach to delivering public services and communicating with stakeholders. New communication channels have given rise to the so-called social media, as well as useful applications, shopping platforms, e-commerce, e-banking, elaborate websites, e-mail, etc. This clearly demonstrates an awareness about the benefits of transferring more elements of the business into virtual space. The whole process has been accelerated since it has become a necessity as a result of the COVID-19 restrictions. There have also been a number of transformations in the public sector, for which the development of e-services has been an opportunity not only to improve civic awareness and build an information society, but also to increase management efficiency, minimize costs and create a better image overall.

The dynamics and scope of the changes taking place in the modern world force us to adapt quickly to the evolving environment. Individuals who excel at adapting to new realities gain an advantage in the global race to be better and more competitive. The source of such advantage is, first and foremost, the ability to anticipate the direction and nature of the changes shaping the emerging socio-economic order. This invaluable knowledge gives responsible and prudent managers the time to create adaptive and resilient organizations that can withstand structural disruptions.

To meet these needs, this publication brings together scholars and practitioners from various industries to address aspects of managing organizations in different sectors. It presents examples of how organizations have coped with the challenges of recent years, with a particular focus on the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, it outlines key trends and phenomena that will intensify in the sectors studied in the future.

This publication is the result of an organized conference held on September 9–12 in 2022 in Sankt Gallen and Zurich, Switzerland This was the 11th foreign conference for Polish professors of organization and management sciences. The guiding theme of the conference was: Resilient Management in the New Era. At this point he would like to thank the two institutions hosting us: University of St. Gallen and the St. Gallen Integrated IMT Business School.

I would very much like to thank the organizers and institutions on the Polish side for their help and joint scientific debates. I would like to thank the members of the Committee on Organization and Management Sciences of the Polish Academy of Sciences, the staff of the Department of International Management at the Krakow University of Economics, Ms. President of the International Management Foundation for leading all formal matters, and the members and staff of the Prof. Jerzy Trzcieniecki Center.

I hope that as we stand at the threshold of a very pronounced technological revolution, we as managers and scientists will be able to demonstrate the foresight that will help make the world the one we all aspire to. I invite you to read this book towards new management sciences – new horizons. I hope that the book will be positively received from the readers.

Introduction

Succession in a family business means a generational change involving the transfer of ownership, power and knowledge by its previous owner and manager (nestor) to his successor, provided that the family character of the company is preserved. It is transferring responsibilities (rights and duties, knowledge resources related to the management of the company) from the nestor to the successor. The primary intention of succession is to ensure the development of the family business and its survival in the market. We can define a successor as a member of the owner family in the second or next generation, who prepares for the generational change and works in the family business (PARP, 2014; Bar, 2018).

Today there are over 800,000 family businesses in Poland, accounting for approximately 90% of all business entities in the country. Over 261,000 people work in the top 100 largest family businesses in Poland. Today 2.4 million owners are registered in the Central Register and Information on Economic Activity (CEIDG). Approx. 520 thousand of them are over 60 years old (Ministerstwo Rozwoju i Technologii, 2023; Thier, 2020). Most of these people will soon face the need for succession.

Until recently, in Western Europe, the founders’ children took only 30% of family businesses over, 10–12% was taken over by grandchildren and only 3–5% by great-grandchildren (Family Business Yearbook, 2015; Deloitte, 2016).

Introduction

Over the last 100 years, healthcare, which is part of the pharmaceutical industry, has been a continuously growing sector of the global economy. In recent decades, the development of pharmaceutical companies has remained relatively intact in regards to the global crisis, and the many challenges faced by the industry rather served as catalysts for further growth. The progress of innovative medicine was a driver for the entire business. This growth was protected by patent law, where the development of one drug would secure a pharmaceutical company for many years. The pharmaceutical industry, which is characterized by very long product life cycles, regulations, knowledge, intensive product developments and huge budgets, has created a unique environment where companies acquire unique sets of skills. However, in the face of current and future challenges, these skills might not be enough to remain competitive in long run. There are some unprecedented changes in the environment which will transform the supply chain, operations, and the way in which pharmaceutical companies will conduct their business.

The aim of this article is to analyze and segment the pharmaceutical sector's environment using the PESTLE method, resulting in a diagnosis and forecast of the dynamics, direction, nature and implications of changes that await this sector in the coming years. A better understanding of these changes is essential for elaborating strategies for the supply chain as well as the development of operational capabilities. In the first section, the authors attempted to identify key global challenges faced by the pharmaceutical industry as well as essential management capabilities for companies, with special attention to the practices in supply chain management.

Introduction

The future of logistics and supply chains is built primarily upon the foundation of IT tools. The fourth industrial revolution, which the literature refers to as Industry 4.0, indicates new directions for the development of not only logistics but the entire industry. Innovativeness in the entire logistics industry was put to the test during the pandemic. Technological investments have proven crucial, however, it was clear that organizational relations, which comprise the base of logistics functioning, were a vital element for business continuity.

Introduction

Beer has been one of the most popular stimulants in the world since 1980. The production of beer has doubled before 2016 (Szajner, 2019). From 2005 to 2018, consumption in Poland increased by 20 liters from 80.7 in 2005 to 100.5 in 2018 (Głowny Urząd Statystyczny, n.d.). Until recently, this market was completely dominated by global concerns, which also applies to Poland (Drożdż, 2016). At the same time, there is a noticeable tendency in which the largest breweries are reducing their market share in favor of small and medium breweries (Szajner, 2019). The reason for this is the international development of craft brewing. The subject of craft brewing is increasingly noticeable in literature; however, it is relatively rarely directly related to the topic of management and its impact on the success of companies that operate in this industry. The article presents what influences the formulation of strategy by small breweries and reveals their perception on the importance of flexibility.

Brewing market

The last decade has been an extremely interesting time on the beer market. Both the world (Garavaglia and Swinnen, 2017) and Poland have seen a change called the “beer revolution”. The beer revolution or the development of craft beers has its origins in the United States (Reid et al., 2014; Elzinga et al., 2015). The USA, which is still associated with poor quality beers from global corporations, underwent a revolution, thanks to which the number of breweries increased from 90 in 1980 to over 7450 in 2018 (Brewers Association, n.d. “National beer sales & production data”).

Introduction

The paper reveals the nature and forms of hybrid phenomena identified in managing territorial development. The author's reflection observes hybrid phenomena in governance and public management to indicate hybridization as a specific operation pattern in the increasing complexity of territorial phenomena. This attempt aims to create a model in the form of a set of fundamental instruments that could serve as recommendations for the creators of the future of territorial units.

The essence of hybridization of governance and spatial management

A review of the scientific literature related to various forms of hybridization in governance and spatial management reveals fragmentary treatment of this problem. It is worth mentioning selected publications. Governance or management hybridization is most often described in the context of mixed organizational structures and their reciprocal impacts ( Johanson and Vakkuri, 2018; Andersen and Sand, 2012). One example is large state-private companies that exert state control over economic life in countries such as Russia and Kazakhstan (Khana, 2012). In general, many publications refer to public-private partnerships in the provision of public services (Czarniawska and Solli, 2016; German and Keeler, 2010; Johanson and Vakkuri, 2018; Logvinov and Lebid, 2018), as well as their impact on public affairs management. Also essential are considerations regarding territorial cooperation in triple, quadruple, and quintuple helix models (Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff, 2000; Miron and Gherasim, 2018; Carayannis et al., 2012).

Introduction

The beginning of 2020 has brought a severe threat to the functioning of enterprises all over the world. The coronavirus pandemic has affected many companies from various sectors. It was of particular importance for industries dealing with managing clients’ free time, including the organization of mass events, such as cinemas, theatres, restaurants, entertainment, and sports. This last area has experienced something unprecedented. It is enough to mention that huge events were postponed to the following year, and this includes the Olympic Games in Tokyo, the European Football Championship (Euro 2020) for the first time in eleven countries (counting England and Scotland separately), and the South American Football Championship (Copa America 2020). All competitions were postponed. Although the pandemic is not over, the costs incurred by the organizers meant that the planned events, regardless of the possibility of suffering losses, were held only in 2021. In this case, it was necessary to continue the sports competition.

Polish football authorities have also suspended national football games. The clubs were unsure if they would continue games. This problematic situation was faced by the top management, which counted economic losses and was constantly struggling to maintain financial liquidity. The subsequent suspension of matches due to the lack of an audience, and then with a limited number of spectators, also did not significantly improve the situation of football clubs (in American English soccer clubs), also in Poland.

All interactions, including those of an economic character, emerge in the social environment. From the perspective of organised social relations, this environment is subject to certain institutionalisation processes, which means that certain forms of behaviour become universal in a given community or society and reflect the commonly shared social norms. The plethora of institutionalised human interactions and relations between entities, communities and customers is the outcome of the diversity inherent in the roles individuals and organisations can have, among other things. The social environment is therefore created by the intermingling norms and subsequent behaviours shaped through family influences, belonging to a profession or to a particular business entity, or being an entrepreneur creating jobs. Such a situation implies a certain hierarchy, where social status can be the outcome of a natural authority, formal position, social capital, or ethnic background but can also be seen through the lens of economic position. Human existence, similarly to organisational activities, happens in the socio-economical fabric, where the social role played by businesses creates jobs and opportunities for development both at the individual level for employees and for shareholders and at the collective level for communities and economies.

A basic question pertaining to the social aspect of international business is therefore the question of whether international expansion and cross-border activities create growth, social, economic or even civilisational opportunities for development, and therefore whether they contribute to the well-being and common good of societies, communities and humans at large.

An attempt to answer this question calls for a two-fold perspective.

First, the net effects of international business should be considered, i.e. the effects related to the costs as well as the benefits for the host economy accepting FDI inflows and the effects related to advantages and disadvantages for the home economy—the source of FDI outflows.

Second, some areas of influence of transnational corporations are of highly strategic significance, not only social but also civilisational. Corporations largely control the pace of innovation, which is related to the dominant role of the private sector in financing R&D. Corporations can play a significant political role, seen through lobbying and different forms of influence on institutions and legislation, but also in political leadership, when corporations become powerful opinionmakers shaping state policies.

The story of a certain pencil

Milton Friedman, one of the key figures in neoliberalism, mentions a famous essay by L.E. Read called I, Pencil… in a series on economics entitled Free to Choose (1980). The author describes the story of how a seemingly trivial product such as a pencil is created. It is an exemplification of a complex production process which is dependent on international cooperation and sourcing of inputs, and is based on a free market pricing system which enables cooperation between independent entities reacting to the dynamics of demand and supply. This creates an environment for creativity to flourish. In a sense, it is a history of the global division of labour, but also an illustration of how the concept of the “invisible hand”, dispersed knowledge and the pricing system operate.

The mechanisms of international co-operation, which should ideally result in products of optimal quality and price, require the free flow of goods, services and production factors—both tangible and intangible. The more this freedom is granted, with the accompanying unrestricted international movement of capital, the more the market becomes global and borders blurred. Such is the process of globalisation, understood as the crafting of a global economy based on integration as well as investment, trade and information flows. A key tenet of a global market is thus an increasing interdependence of the international market actors.

The concept of the global economy can be best illustrated by key words such as proximity, location and a global mentality in both an organisational and an individual sense.

Proximity can be interpreted in the context of shrinking space for competition and a smaller distance to consumer markets.

It is a result of communication and technological advancement which makes geographical distance less of an issue and makes access to consumers much easier, but at the same time makes competition more intense.

The significance of location refers to the strategic ability to locate given elements of the value chain in such geographical locations which offer optimal conditions for a specific industry and business model in which a comparative advantage exists.

Methodology of the case studies

Case study research has been applied in the study (Yin, 2009). The selection of exemplary industries, economic clusters and enterprises for the case studies was based on a finding of convergence with the themes of the case studies. The criteria used to select case study subjects are presented in Table 16.

The aims of the studies are to describe the paradigms of globalisation and its impact in the micro and mesoeconomic areas on the basis of specific examples taken from economic business activities. Particular attention has been paid to industrial clusters as a form of organisation of an industry which is especially active in international business relationships.

The sources of the data and information used in the case studies are as follows:

• • Eurostat—Regional structural business statistics,

• • GUS—Statistics Poland,

• • mostly peer-reviewed scientific articles,

• • websites of companies and clusters.

Case studies no. 1, 2, 3 and 5 may be considered descriptive case studies (Baxter, Jack, 2008; Yin, 2009). Case study no. 4 has an explanatory nature (Baxter, Jack, 2008; Yin, 2009).

In case studies 1 and 2, both focused on a similar industry, the method included a literature review on clusters, using key words such as “Italian cluster”, “Marshallian cluster”, “cluster upgrading”, “cluster evolution”, and “clusters in global value chains”. Thanks to the application of the abovementioned selection criteria, it was possible to identify the clusters that best reflected the subject matter of the case study and the research questions posed.

Case 1 included also a qualitative method used for industry delimitation and mostly for industrial cluster identification. It was based on the measurement of the location quotient (LQ).

It is assumed that a location index of more than 1.25 indicates a potential cluster. A higher score on this indicator is accompanied by a higher probability of a cluster being present in the area. LQ shall be calculated as specified below.

LQ measures the relative concentration of a given type of activity (industry) in a research area in relation to the reference area, predominantly a region (Bohatkiewicz, Gancarczyk, 2018, pp. 490–491), usually a national economy (Górska, Łukasik, 2013).