Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-cphqk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-09T12:44:15.131Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Academic achievement and schizophrenia: a systematic meta-analysis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 July 2020

Hannah Dickson Open the ORCID record for Hannah Dickson [Opens in a new window] ,
Emily P. Hedges Open the ORCID record for Emily P. Hedges [Opens in a new window] ,
Shin Y. Ma ,
Alexis E. Cullen ,
James H. MacCabe ,
Matthew J. Kempton ,
Johnny Downs  and
Kristin R. Laurens
Hannah Dickson*
Affiliation:
Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
Emily P. Hedges
Affiliation:
Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
Shin Y. Ma
Affiliation:
Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
Alexis E. Cullen
Affiliation:
Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
James H. MacCabe
Affiliation:
Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
Matthew J. Kempton
Affiliation:
Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
Johnny Downs
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
Kristin R. Laurens
Affiliation:
Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK Queensland University of Technology (QUT), School of Psychology and Counselling, and Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Brisbane, QLD, Australia School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, NSW, Australia
*
Author for correspondence: Hannah Dickson, E-mail: hannah.dickson@kcl.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Cognitive impairments in childhood are associated with increased risk of schizophrenia in later life, but the extent to which poor academic achievement is associated with the disorder is unclear.

Methods

Major databases were searched for articles published in English up to 31 December 2019. We conducted random-effects meta-analyses to: (1) compare general academic and mathematics achievement in youth who later developed schizophrenia and those who did not; (2) to examine the association between education level achieved and adult-onset schizophrenia; and, (3) compare general academic achievement in youth at-risk for schizophrenia and typically developing peers. Meta-regression models examined the effects of type of academic assessment, educational system, age at assessment, measurement of educational level attained, school leaving age, and study quality on academic achievement and education level among individuals with schizophrenia.

Results

Meta-analyses, comprising data of over four million individuals, found that: (1) by age 16 years, those who later developed schizophrenia had poorer general academic (Cohen's d = −0.29, p ⩽ 0.0001) and mathematics achievement (d = −0.23, p = 0.01) than those who did not; (2) individuals with schizophrenia were less likely to enter higher education (odds ratio = 0.49, p ⩽ 0.0001); and, (3) youth reporting psychotic-like experiences and youth with a family history of schizophrenia had lower general academic achievement (d = −0.54, p ⩽ 0.0001; d = −0.39, p ⩽ 0.0001, respectively). Meta-regression analyses determined no effect modifiers.

Discussion

Despite significant heterogeneity across studies, various routinely collected indices of academic achievement can identify premorbid cognitive dysfunction among individuals who are vulnerable for schizophrenia, potentially aiding the early identification of risk in the population.

Keywords

Academic attainmentadolescencechildhoodcognitionpsychosisscholastic achievement
Type
Review Article
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 50 , Issue 12 , September 2020 , pp. 1949 - 1965
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Joint first authors.

References

Agnew-Blais, J., & Seidman, L. J. (2013). Neurocognition in youth and young adults under age 30 at familial risk for schizophrenia: A quantitative and qualitative review. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 18(1–2), 44–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546805.2012.676309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akal, B. N., & Dogan, O. (2010). Potential risk factors for schizophrenia. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 47(3), 230–236.Google Scholar
Ang, Y.-G., & Tan, H.-Y. (2004). Academic deterioration prior to first episode schizophrenia in young Singaporean males. Psychiatry Research, 121(3), 303–307. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(03)00257-9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bartels-Velthuis, A. A., van de Willige, G., Jenner, J. A., van Os, J., & Wiersma, D. (2011). Course of auditory vocal hallucinations in childhood: 5-year follow-up study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 199(4), 296–302. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.110.086918.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bener, A., Al-Hamaq, A. O. A. A., & Dafeeah, E. E. (2014). A two fold risk of metabolic syndrome in a sample of patients with schizophrenia: Do consanguinity and family history increase risk? Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research & Reviews, 8(1), 24–29. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2013.10.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bilder, R. M., Reiter, G., Bates, J., Lencz, T., Szeszko, P., Goldman, R. S., … Kane, J. M. (2006). Cognitive development in schizophrenia: Follow-back from the first episode. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28(2), 270–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390500360554.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradburn, J., Deeks, J. J., & Altman, D. G. (1999). Metan – an alternative meta-analysis command. Stata Technical Bulletin, 8(44), 4–15.Google Scholar
Breton, F., Planté, A., Legauffre, C., Morel, N., Adès, J., Gorwood, P., … Dubertret, C. (2011). The executive control of attention differentiates patients with schizophrenia, their first-degree relatives and healthy controls. Neuropsychologia, 49(2), 203–208. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.11.019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burgess, B., Curtis-Downes, D., & Gibson, R. C. (2013). Education and employment levels among Jamaican patients newly diagnosed with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 59(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764011433638.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, M., Jones, P., Huttunen, M. O., Tanskanen, A., Huttunen, T., Rabe-Hesketh, S., & Murray, R. M. (1999). School performance in Finnish children and later development of schizophrenia: A population-based longitudinal study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(5), 457–463. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.56.5.457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, H., Cohen, P., & Chen, S. (2010). How big is a big odds ratio? Interpreting the magnitudes of odds ratios in epidemiological studies. Communications in Statistics – Simulation and Computation, 39(4), 860–864. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610911003650383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chong, S. A., Subramaniam, M., Lee, I. M., Pek, E., Cheok, C., Verma, S., & Wong, J. (2009). Academic attainment: A predictor of psychiatric disorders? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 44(11), 999. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-009-0027-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. (1992). Statistical power analysis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(3), 98–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10768783.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, M. E., Dembling, B., & Schorling, J. B. (2002). The association between schizophrenia and cancer: A population-based mortality study. Schizophrenia Research, 57(2), 139–146. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0920-9964(01)00308-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crow, T. J., Done, D. J., & Sacker, A. (1995). Childhood precusors of psychosis as clues to evolutionary origins. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 245, 61–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DerSimonian, R., & Laird, N. (1986). Meta-analysis in clinical trials. Controlled Clinical Trials, 7(3), 177–188. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0197-2456(86)90046-2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diaz, F. J., Velásquez, D. M., Susce, M. T., & de Leon, J. (2008). The association between schizophrenia and smoking: Unexplained by either the illness or the prodromal period. Schizophrenia Research, 104(1), 214–219. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2008.06.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickson, H., Cullen, A. E., Jones, R., Reichenberg, A., Roberts, R. E., Hodgins, S., … Laurens, K. R. (2018). Trajectories of cognitive development during adolescence among youth at-risk for schizophrenia. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59(11), 1215–1224. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12912.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickson, H., Cullen, A. E., Reichenberg, A., Hodgins, S., Campbell, D. D., Morris, R. G., & Laurens, K. R. (2014). Cognitive impairment among children at-risk for schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 50, 92–99. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.12.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickson, H., Laurens, K. R., Cullen, A. E., & Hodgins, S. (2012). Meta-analyses of cognitive and motor function in youth aged 16 years and younger who subsequently develop schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine, 42(4), 743–755. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711001693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duarte, E. A., Mamani, A. W. D., Rosales, G., & Kymalainen, J. (2008). Educational attainment as a predictor of attributions and expressed emotion in a tri-ethnic sample of relatives of patients with schizophrenia. Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 42, 161–170. http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0034-96902008000100017&nrm=iso.Google Scholar
Forsyth, J. K., Ellman, L. M., Tanskanen, A., Mustonen, U., Huttunen, M. O., Suvisaari, J., & Cannon, T. D. (2013). Genetic risk for schizophrenia, obstetric complications, and adolescent school outcome: Evidence for gene-environment interaction. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 39(5), 1067–1076. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbs098.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fountoulakis, K. N., Panagiotidis, P., Gonda, X., Kimiskidis, V., & Nimatoudis, I. (2018). Neurological soft signs significantly differentiate schizophrenia patients from healthy controls. Acta Neuropsychiatrica, 30(2), 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/neu.2017.29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frey, M. C. (2019). What we know, are still getting wrong, and have yet to learn about the relationships among the SAT, intelligence and achievement. Journal of Intelligence, 7(4), 26. https://www.mdpi.com/2079-3200/7/4/26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuller, R., Nopoulos, P., Arndt, S., O'Leary, D., Ho, B.-C., & Andreasen, N. C. (2002). Longitudinal assessment of premorbid cognitive functioning in patients with schizophrenia through examination of standardized scholastic test performance. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(7), 1183–1189. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.7.1183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fusar-Poli, P., Tantardini, M., De Simone, S., Ramella-Cravaro, V., Oliver, D., Kingdon, J., … McGuire, P. (2017). Deconstructing vulnerability for psychosis: Meta-analysis of environmental risk factors for psychosis in subjects at ultra high-risk. European Psychiatry, 40, 65–75. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2016.09.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
García-Laredo, E., Maestú, F., Castellanos, M. Á., Molina, J. D., & Peréz-Moreno, E. (2015). The relationship between educational years and Phonemic Verbal Fluency (PVF) and Semantic Verbal Fluency (SVF) tasks in Spanish patients diagnosed with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and psychotic bipolar disorder. Medicine, 94(39), e1596–e1596. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000001596.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greve, A. N., Mors, O., Mortensen, E. L., Meier, S. M., McGrath, J. J., & Petersen, L. (2017). Is the association between offspring intelligence and parents' educational attainment influenced by schizophrenia or mood disorder in parents? Schizophrenia Research: Cognition, 9, 18–22. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scog.2017.07.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gurpegui, M., Martínez-Ortega, J. M., Aguilar, M. C., Diaz, F. J., Quintana, H. M., & de Leon, J. (2005, 2005/07/01/). Smoking initiation and schizophrenia: A replication study in a Spanish sample. Schizophrenia Research, 76(1), 113–118. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2004.12.007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gustafsson, J.-E., & Blömeke, S. (2018). Development of school achievement in the Nordic Countries during half a century. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 62(3), 386–406. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2018.1434829.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Healy, C., Brannigan, R., Dooley, N., Coughlan, H., Clarke, M., Kelleher, I., & Cannon, M. (2019). Childhood and adolescent psychotic experiences and risk of mental disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 49(10), 1589–1599. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719000485.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helling, I., Öhman, A., & Hultman, C. M. (2003). School achievements and schizophrenia: a case control study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 108, 381–386.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hempel, S., Miles, J. N. V., Booth, M. J., Wang, Z., Morton, S. C., & Shekelle, P. G. (2013). Risk of bias: A simulation study of power to detect study-level moderator effects in meta-analysis. Systematic Reviews, 2, 107–107. https://doi.org/10.1186/2046-4053-2-107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herman, W. E., & Nelson, G. C. (2009). A researcher's dilemma: A comparison of estimated versus actual college GPA. NERA Conference proceedings.Google Scholar
Higgins, J. P. T., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J., & Altman, D. G. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ (Clinical Research ed.), 327(7414), 557–560. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holthausen, E. A. E., Wiersma, D., Sitskoorn, M. M., Hijman, R., Dingemans, P. M., Schene, A. H., & van den Bosch, R. J. (2002). Schizophrenic patients without neuropsychological deficits: Subgroup, disease severity or cognitive compensation? Psychiatry Research, 112(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(02)00184-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isohanni, I., JÄrvelin, M. R., Nieminen, P., Jones, P., Rantakallio, P., Jokelainen, J., & Isohanni, M. (1998). School performance as a predictor of psychiatric hospitalization in adult life. A 28–year follow-up in the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort. Psychological Medicine, 28(4), 967-974. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291798006928.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isohanni, I., Jones, P. B., JÄrvelin, M. R., Nieminen, P., Rantakallio, P., Jokelainen, J., … Isohanni, M. (2001). Educational consequences of mental disorders treated in hospital. A 31–year follow-up of the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort. Psychological Medicine, 31(2), 339–349. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329170100304X.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, D., & Turner, R. (2017). Power analysis for random-effects meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods, 8(3), 290–302. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson-Greene, D., Dehring, M., Adams, K. M., Miller, T., Arora, S., Beylin, A., & Brandon, R. (1997). Accuracy of self-reported educational attainment among diverse patient populations: A preliminary investigation. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 12(7), 635–643. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(96)00046-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, P., Murray, R., Jones, P., Rodgers, B., & Marmot, M. (1994). Child developmental risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort. The Lancet, 344(8934), 1398-1402. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(94)90569-X.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jundong, J., Kuja-Halkola, R., Hultman, C., Långström, N., D'Onofrio, B. M., & Lichtenstein, P. (2012). Poor school performance in offspring of patients with schizophrenia: What are the mechanisms? Psychological Medicine, 42(1), 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711001127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S., Ohlsson, H., Mezuk, B., Sundquist, K., & Sundquist, J. (2016). A Swedish national prospective and co-relative study of school achievement at age 16, and risk for schizophrenia, other nonaffective psychosis, and bipolar illness. Schizophrenia bulletin, 42(1), 77–86. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbv103.Google ScholarPubMed
Kim, S. W., Park, W. Y., Jhon, M., Kim, M., Lee, J. Y., Kim, S. Y., … Yoon, J. S. (2019). Physical health literacy and health-related behaviors in patients with psychosis. Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience, 17(2), 279–287. https://doi.org/10.9758/cpn.2019.17.2.279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lancefield, K. S., Raudino, A., Downs, J. M., & Laurens, K. R. (2016). Trajectories of childhood internalizing and externalizing psychopathology and psychotic-like experiences in adolescence: A prospective population-based cohort study. Development and Psychopathology, 28(2), 527–536. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415001108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langberg, J. M., Molina, B. S., Arnold, L. E., Epstein, J. N., Altaye, M., Hinshaw, S. P., … Hechtman, L. (2011). Patterns and predictors of adolescent academic achievement and performance in a sample of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40(4), 519–531. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2011.581620.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laurens, K. R., & Cullen, A. E. (2016). Toward earlier identification and preventative intervention in schizophrenia: Evidence from the London child health and development study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 51(4), 475–491. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-015-1151-x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laurens, K. R., Tzoumakis, S., Dean, K., Harris, F., Carr, V. J., & Green, M. J. (2020). Population profiles of child-reported psychotic-like experiences and their differential association with other psychopathologies. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59(1), 22–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levitt, J. M., Saka, N., Hunter Romanelli, L., & Hoagwood, K. (2007). Early identification of mental health problems in schools: The status of instrumentation. Journal of School Psychology, 45(2), 163–191. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.11.005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, A., Di Prinzio, P., Young, D., Jacoby, P., Whitehouse, A., Waters, F., … Morgan, V. A. (2017). Academic performance in children of mothers with schizophrenia and other severe mental illness, and risk for subsequent development of psychosis: A population-based study. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 43(1), 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbw042.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacCabe, J. H. (2008). Population-based cohort studies on premorbid cognitive function in schizophrenia. Epidemiologic Reviews, 30(1), 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxn007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacCabe, J. H., Lambe, M. P., Cnattingius, S., Torrång, A., Björk, C., Sham, P. C., … Hultman, C. M. (2008). Scholastic achievement at age 16 and risk of schizophrenia and other psychoses: A national cohort study. Psychological Medicine, 38(8), 1133–1140. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707002048.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mallett, R., Leff, J., Bhugra, D., Takei, N., & Corridan, B. (2004). Ethnicity, goal striving and schizophrenia: A case-control study of three ethnic groups in the United Kingdom. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 50(4), 331–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764004046072.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Roisman, G. I., Long, J. D., Burt, K. B., Obradović, J., Riley, J. R., … Tellegen, A. (2005). Developmental cascades: Linking academic achievement and externalizing and internalizing symptoms over 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 41(5), 733–746. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.5.733.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matheson, S. L., Shepherd, A. M., Laurens, K. R., & Carr, V. J. (2011). A systematic meta-review grading the evidence for non-genetic risk factors and putative antecedents of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 133(1), 133–142. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2011.09.020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCormick, E., Thompson, K., Stoep, A. V., & McCauley, E. (2009). The case for school-based depression screening: Evidence from established programs. Report on Emotional & Behavioral Disorders in Youth, 9(4), 91–96. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26451134 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4594945/.Google ScholarPubMed
Meesters, P. D., Schouws, S., Stek, M., de Haan, L., Smit, J., Eikelenboom, P., … Comijs, H. (2013). Cognitive impairment in late life schizophrenia and bipolar I disorder. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(1), 82–90. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.3793.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melkevik, O., Nilsen, W., Evensen, M., Reneflot, A., & Mykletun, A. (2016). Internalizing disorders as risk factors for early school leaving: A systematic review. Adolescent Research Review, 1(3), 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-016-0024-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Messacar, D., & Oreopoulos, P. (2013). Staying in school: A proposal for raising high-school graduation rates. Issues in Science and Technology, 29(2), 55–61. www.jstor.org/stable/43315719.Google Scholar
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. BMJ, 339, b2535. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b2535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mollon, J., & Reichenberg, A. (2017). Cognitive development prior to onset of psychosis. Psychological Medicine, 48(3), 392–403. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717001970.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mortensen, P. B., Pedersen, M. G., & Pedersen, C. B. (2009). Psychiatric family history and schizophrenia risk in Denmark: Which mental disorders are relevant? Psychological Medicine, 40(2), 201–210. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709990419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nugent, K. L., Chiappelli, J., Rowland, L. M., & Hong, L. E. (2015). Cumulative stress pathophysiology in schizophrenia as indexed by allostatic load. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 60, 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.06.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramsay, H., Barnett, J. H., Murray, G. K., Miettunen, J., Mäki, P., Järvelin, M.-R., … Veijola, J. (2018). Cognition, psychosis risk and metabolic measures in two adolescent birth cohorts. Psychological Medicine, 48(15), 2609–2623. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718001794.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ranning, A., Laursen, T., Agerbo, E., Thorup, A., Hjorthøj, C., Jepsen, J. R. M., & Nordentoft, M. (2017). School performance from primary education in the adolescent offspring of parents with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder– a national, register-based study. Psychological Medicine, 48(12), 1993–2000. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717003518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rathor, D., Dave, K., Mehta, R., Oswal, R., & Gupta, S. (2008). Nicotine consumption and schizophrenia: A correlation study. International Journal of Medical Toxicology and Legal Medicine, 11(1), 6–11.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, J. A. (1996). Qualitative Descriptors of Strength of Association and Effect Size. Journal of Social Service Research, 21(4), 37–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandstrom, A., MacKenzie, L., Pizzo, A., Fine, A., Rempel, S., Howard, C., … Pavlova, B. (2020). Observed psychopathology in offspring of parents with major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine, 50(6), 1050–1056.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schulz, J., Sundin, J., Leask, S., & Done, D. J. (2014). Risk of adult schizophrenia and its relationship to childhood IQ in the 1958 British birth cohort. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 40(1), 143–151. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbs157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seidman, L. J., Cherkerzian, S., Goldstein, J. M., Agnew-Blais, J., Tsuang, M. T., & Buka, S. L. (2013). Neuropsychological performance and family history in children at age 7 who develop adult schizophrenia or bipolar psychosis in the New England family studies. Psychological Medicine, 43(1), 119–131. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291712000773.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharp, S. (1998). Meta-analysis regression. Stata Technical Bulletin, 7(42), 16–22.Google Scholar
Sheffield, J. M., Karcher, N. R., & Barch, D. M. (2018). Cognitive deficits in psychotic disorders: A lifespan perspective. Neuropsychology Review, 28(4), 509–533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-018-9388-2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sørensen, H. J., Debost, J.-C., Agerbo, E., Benros, M. E., McGrath, J. J., Mortensen, P. B., … Petersen, L. (2018). Polygenic risk scores, school achievement, and risk for schizophrenia: A Danish population-based study. Biological Psychiatry, 84(9), 684–691. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.04.012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
StataCorp. (2017). Stata Statistical Software: Release 15. In StataCorp LLC.Google Scholar
Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8(3), 448–460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stramecki, F., Kotowicz, K. D., Piotrowski, P., Frydecka, D., Rymaszewska, J., Beszłej, J. A., … Misiak, B. (2018). Assessment of the association between cigarette smoking and cognitive performance in patients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: A case-control study. Frontiers in psychiatry, 9, 642–642. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00642.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sutton, A. J., Duval, S. J., Tweedie, R. L., Abrams, K. R., & Jones, D. R. (2000). Empirical assessment of effect of publication bias on meta-analyses. BMJ, 320(7249), 1574–1577. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.320.7249.1574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tempelaar, W. M., Termorshuizen, F., MacCabe, J. H., Boks, M. P. M., & Kahn, R. S. (2017). Educational achievement in psychiatric patients and their siblings: A register-based study in 30 000 individuals in The Netherlands. Psychological Medicine, 47(4), 776–784. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716002877.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ullman, V. Z., Hornik-Lurie, T., & Reichenberg, A. (2017). A population-based study of premorbid scholastic achievement among patients with psychiatric disorders. Psychiatry Research, 253, 281–286. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.04.017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ullman, V. Z., Levine, S. Z., Reichenberg, A., & Rabinowitz, J. (2012). Real-world premorbid functioning in schizophrenia and affective disorders during the early teenage years: A population-based study of school grades and teacher ratings. Schizophrenia Research, 136(1), 13–18. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2012.01.021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Veleva, I. I., Stoimenova, M. J., & Valkova, M. P. (2019). A comparative study of verbal fluency in patients with paranoid schizophrenia, first grade relatives and healthy controls. Archives of the Balkan Medical Union. 54(2), 325–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vreeker, A., Boks, M. P. M., Abramovic, L., Verkooijen, S., van Bergen, A. H., Hillegers, M. H. J., … Investigators, G. (2016). High educational performance is a distinctive feature of bipolar disorder: A study on cognition in bipolar disorder, schizophrenia patients, relatives and controls. Psychological Medicine, 46(4), 807–818. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291715002299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1992). Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT). Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Welham, J., Isohanni, M., Jones, P., & McGrath, J. (2009). The antecedents of schizophrenia: A review of birth cohort studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 35(3), 603–623. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbn084.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wells, G. A., Shea, B., O'Connell, D., Petersen, J., Welch, V., Losos, M., & Tugwell, P. (2011). The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of nonrandomised studies in meta-analyses. Retrieved June 27th from http://www.ohri.ca/programs/clinical_epidemiology/oxford.asp.Google Scholar
Werbeloff, N., Drukker, M., Dohrenwend, B. P., Levav, I., Yoffe, R., van Os, J., … Weiser, M. (2012). Self-reported attenuated psychotic symptoms as forerunners of severe mental disorders later in life. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(5), 467–475. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilkinson, G. S., & Robertson, G. J. (2006). Wide Range Achievement Test Fourth Edition. Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Woessmann, L. (2016). The importance of school systems: Evidence from international differences in student achievement. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 30(3), 3–32. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.30.3.3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodberry, K. A., Giuliano, A. J., & Seidman, L. J. (2008). Premorbid IQ in schizophrenia: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(5), 579–587. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07081242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wu, S. S., Mittal, V., Pennington, B., & Willcutt, E. G. (2014). Mathematics achievement scores and early psychosis in school-aged children. Schizophrenia Research, 156(1), 133–134. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2014.03.027.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Dickson et al. supplementary material

Dickson et al. supplementary material

Download Dickson et al. supplementary material(File)
File 149 KB