Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-s22k5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-12T01:59:53.640Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Key issues for Li-ion battery recycling

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 November 2018

Linda Gaines ,
Kirti Richa  and
Jeffrey Spangenberger
Linda Gaines*
Affiliation:
Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, USA
Kirti Richa
Affiliation:
Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, USA
Jeffrey Spangenberger
Affiliation:
Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, USA
*
a)Address all correspondence to Linda Gaines at lgaines@anl.gov
Get access

Abstract

Concerted efforts by stakeholders could overcome the hurdles and enable a viable recycling system for automotive LIBs by the time many of them go out of service.

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) were commercialized in the early 1990s and gained popularity first in consumer electronics, then more recently for electric vehicle (EV) propulsion, because of their high energy and power density and long cycle life. Their rapid adoption brings with it the challenge of end-of-life waste management. There are strong arguments for LIB recycling from environmental sustainability, economic, and political perspectives. Recycling reduces material going into landfills and avoids the impacts of virgin material production. LIBs contain high-value materials like cobalt and nickel, so recycling can reduce material and disposal costs, leading to reduced EV costs. Battery recycling can also reduce material demand and dependence on foreign resources, such as cobalt from Democratic Republic of the Congo, where much production relies on armed aggression and child labor.

Several companies are finding ways to commercialize recycling of the increasingly diverse LIB waste stream. Although Pb-acid battery recycling has been successfully implemented, there are many reasons why recycling of LIBs is not yet a universally well-established practice. Some of these are technical constraints, and others involve economic barriers, logistic issues, and regulatory gaps. This paper first builds a case as to why LIBs should be recycled, next compares recycling processes, and then addresses the different factors affecting LIB recycling to direct future work towards overcoming the barriers so that recycling can become standard practice.

Keywords

recyclingCoLilifecycle
Type
Review Article
Information
MRS Energy & Sustainability , Volume 5 , 2018 , E14
Copyright
Copyright © Materials Research Society 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

U.S. Department of the Interior: Interior Seeks Public Comment on Draft List of 35 Minerals Deemed Critical to U.S. National Security and the Economy (press release, February 16, 2018). Available at: https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/interior-seeks-public-comment-draft-list-35-minerals-deemed-critical-us-national.Google Scholar
Gaines, L. and Nelson, P.: Lithium-ion batteries: Examining material demand and recycling issues. Paper presented at the TMS 2010 Annual Meeting and Exhibition, Seattle, Washington, February, 2010.Google Scholar
Pillot, C.: The rechargeable battery market and main trends 2015–2025. Paper presented at the 33rd International Battery Seminar and Exhibit, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, March 21, 2016.Google Scholar
Tahil, W.: The Trouble with Lithium (January, 2007). Available at: http://www.evworld.com/library/lithium_shortage.pdf (accessed February 14, 2008).Google Scholar
Cobalt, U.S. Geological Survey, mineral commodity summaries, January, 2018. Available at: https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cobalt/mcs-2018-cobal.pdf (accessed February 15, 2018).Google Scholar
Nickel, U.S. Geological Survey, mineral commodity summaries, January, 2018. Available at: https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/nickel/mcs-2018-nicke.pdf (accessed February 15, 2018).Google Scholar
Lithium, U.S. Geological Survey, mineral commodity summaries, January, 2018. Available at: https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/mcs-2018-lithi.pdf (accessed February 15, 2018).Google Scholar
Gaines, L. and Nelson, P.: Lithium-ion batteries: Possible materials issues. Paper presented at the 13th International Battery Materials Recycling Seminar, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, March, 2009.Google Scholar
Reaugh, L.: American Manganese: VRIC Conversation with President and CEO Larry Reaugh (January 25, 2018). Available at: http://moonshotexec.com/american-manganese-vric-conversation-with-president-and-ceo-larry-reaugh/ (accessed February 14, 2018).Google Scholar
Data from Gallagher, K. and Nelson, P.: Manufacturing Costs of Batteries for Electric Vehicles. In Lithium-Ion Batteries: Advances and Applications. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59513-3.00006-6 (accessed June 11, 2018); ch. 6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LME, Cobalt (2018). Available at: https://www.lme.com/Metals/Minor-metals/Cobalt#tabIndex=0 (accessed March, 2018); Nickel (2018), https://www.lme.com/Metals/Non-ferrous/Nickel#tabIndex=0 (accessed March, 2018).Google Scholar
Qandl, London Metal Exchange: Available at: https://www.quandl.com/data/LME-London-Metal-Exchange (accessed May, 2018).Google Scholar
Statista: Average Lithium Carbonate Price from 2010 to 2017 in U.S. Dollars per Metric Ton. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/606350/battery-grade-lithium-carbonate-price/ (accessed June 6, 2018).Google Scholar
Dunn, J.B., Gaines, L., Barnes, M., Sullivan, J., and Wang, M.: Material and Energy Flows in the Materials Production, Assembly, and End of Life Stages of the Automotive Lithium Ion Battery Life Cycle; Report ANL/ESD/12-3; Argonne National Laboratory: Argonne, Illinois, June 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, P.A., Gallagher, K.G., Bloom, I., and Dees, D.W.: Modeling the Performance and Cost of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric-Drive Vehicles; Report ANL-11/32; Argonne National Laboratory: Argonne, Illinois, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Argonne National Laboratory: BatPaC: A Lithium-Ion Battery Performance and Cost Model for Electric-Drive Vehicles. Available at: http://www.cse.anl.gov/batpac/index.html (accessed September, 2017).Google Scholar
Lee, C.K. and Rhee, K.I.: Preparation of LiCoO2 from spent lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 109, 17–21 (2002). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00037-X (accessed August 22, 2018).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shi, Y., Chen, G., and Chen, Z.: Effective regeneration of LiCoO2 from spent lithium-ion batteries: A direct approach towards high-performance active particles. Green Chem. 20(4), 851–862 (2018). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1039/C7GC02831H (accessed August 22, 2018).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farasis Energy, Inc.: Direct Recycling Technology for Plug-In Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Battery Packs; Report CEC-500-2016-016; California Energy Commission: Sacramento, California, March, 2015. Available at: https://www.coursehero.com/file/17965992/Direct-recycling-5/ (accessed August 22, 2018).Google Scholar
Sloop, S.: Advances in direct recycling of Li-ion batteries. Presentation at the NAATBatt Recycling Workshop, Ann Arbor, Michigan, November 30, 2016. Available at: http://naatbatt.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/ONTO_NAATBaat_2016b.pdf (accessed August 22, 2018).Google Scholar
Gaines, L.: Lithium-ion battery recycling processes: Research towards a sustainable course. Sustainable Mater. Technol. 17 (2018). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2018.e00068 (accessed August 23, 2018).Google Scholar
SAE International: Identification of Transportation Battery Systems for Recycling Recommended Practice, J2984_201308 (August, 2013).Google Scholar
Battery Association of Japan: Recycling Portable Rechargeable Batteries. Available at: http://www.baj.or.jp/e/recycle/recycle04.html (accessed April 19, 2018).Google Scholar
Binks, S.: Lead, lithium recycling mix: A clear and present danger. In Batteries International (Spring, 2015); p. 12. Available at: https://www.ila-lead.org/UserFiles/File/Newsletter%20files/Lithium%20battery%20safety%20-%20Batteries%20International.pdf (accessed June 11, 2018).Google Scholar
Epoch Times: Recycling Plant Releases Video of Fire to Discourage Throwing Away Batteries (2017). Available at: https://www.theepochtimes.com/recycling-plant-releases-video-of-fire-to-discourage-throwing-away-batteries_2395520.html (accessed June 6, 2018).Google Scholar
McCarthy, S.: Lithium Batteries Ignite Small Fires inside Linn County Landfill (KCRG-TV9, June 2, 2016). Available at: http://www.kcrg.com/content/news/Lithium-batteries-ignite-small-fires-inside-Linn-County-landfill-381726241.html (accessed June 6, 2018).Google Scholar
SAE International: Automotive Battery Recycling Identification and Cross Contamination Prevention. J3071_201604 (April, 2016).Google Scholar
USABC: Recommended practice for recycling of xEV electrochemical energy storage systems (2014). Available at: http://www.uscar.org/guest/teams/12/U-S-Advanced-Battery-Consortium-LLC (accessed January 14, 2018).Google Scholar
Coy, T. (Kinsbursky Brothers): Personal communication with L. Gaines (2015).Google Scholar
Targray: White Paper: Hydrophilic Binder Performance in Li-ion Batteries (March 13, 2017). Available at: https://www.targray.com/articles/hydrophilic-binder (accessed February 12, 2018).Google Scholar
European Commission: Directive 2006/66/EC of the european parliament and of the council of 6 September 2006 on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators and repealing directive 91/157/EEC. Official Journal of the European Union L 266/1 (26 September 2006).Google Scholar
Webster, H.: Fire Protection for the Shipment of Lithium Batteries in Aircraft Cargo Compartments; Report DOT/FAA/AR-10/31; Federal Aviation Administration: Washington, DC, November, 2010.Google Scholar
Mikolajczak, C., Kahn, M., White, K., and Long, R.T.: Lithium-Ion Batteries Hazard and Use Assessment (Springer, New York, 2011); pp. 31–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
European Power Tool Association: Shipping Lithium Ion Batteries for Cordless Power Tools and Electric Garden Equipment: Implementation of Dangerous Goods Transport Regulations (2017).Google Scholar
Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Environmental Protection; Ministry of Transport; Ministry of Commerce; General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine; National Energy Administration, Provisional Regulation on the Recycling and Reuse of Traction Batteries from New Energy Vehicles (NEVs) (January 2018); http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-02/27/c_137001646.htm (accessed May 23, 2018).Google Scholar
Vimmerstedt, L.J., Ring, S., and Hammel, C.J.: Current Status of Environmental, Health, and Safety Issues of Lithium-Ion Electric Vehicle Batteries; Report NREL/TP-463-7673; National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Golden, Colorado, 1995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bielewski, M.: New EU law is coming: Revision of the directive 2006/66/EU on batteries. Paper presented at the International Discussion on Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling, Golden, Colorado, May 30–31, 2018.Google Scholar
European Union: Directive 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on End-of-Life Vehicles (September 18, 2000).Google Scholar
Richa, K., Babbitt, C., and Gaustad, G.: Eco-efficiency analysis of a lithium-ion battery waste hierarchy inspired by circular economy. J. Ind. Ecol. 21(3), 715–730 (2017).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, X., Gaustad, G., Babbitt, C.W., and Richa, K.: Economies of scale for future lithium-ion battery recycling infrastructure. Resour., Conserv. Recycl. 83, 53–62 (2014).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gratz, E., Sa, Q., Apelian, D., and Wang, Y.: A closed loop process for recycling spent lithium ion batteries. J. Power Sources 262, 255–262 (2014).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heelan, J., Gratz, E., Zheng, Z., Wang, Q., Chen, M., Apelian, D., and Wang, Y.: Current and prospective Li-ion battery recycling and recovery processes. JOM 68(10), 2632–2638 (2016).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Georgi-Maschler, T., Friedrich, B., Weyhe, R., Heegn, H., and Rutz, M.: Development of a recycling process for Li-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 207, 173–182 (2012).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewulf, J., van der Vorst, G., Denturck, K., van Langenhove, H., Ghyoot, W., Tytgat, J., and Vandeputte, K.: Recycling rechargeable lithium ion batteries: Critical analysis of natural resource savings. Resour., Conserv. Recycl. 54(4), 229–234 (2010).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richa, K., Babbitt, C.W., Gaustad, G., and Wang, X.: A future perspective on lithium-ion battery waste flows from electric vehicles. Resour., Conserv. Recycl. 83, 63–76 (2014).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
USGPO, Public Law 104–142: Mercury Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act (1996). Available at: www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-104publ142/content-detail.html (accessed May 23, 2018).Google Scholar
Kang, D.H.P., Chen, M., and Ogunseitan, O.A.: Potential environmental and human health impacts of rechargeable lithium batteries in electronic waste. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47(10), 5495–5503 (2013).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eurofins: Federal and State Hazardous Waste Criteria (2012). Available at: www.eurofinsus.com/media/161417/hazardous_waste_regulatory_limits.pdf (accessed May 23, 2018).Google Scholar
Rechargeable Battery Recycling Act of 2006 (California Code, Chapter 8.4, 42451 to 42456, 2006).Google Scholar
New York State Rechargeable Battery Law, New York environmental conservation law. In Title 18. Rechargeable Battery Recycling (27–1081 to 27–1811, 2010).Google Scholar
Product Stewardship for Rechargeable Batteries (Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Saint Paul, 2015).Google Scholar
Call2Recycle: What Can I Recycle? (2018). Available at: www.call2recycle.org/what-can-i-recycle/ (accessed May 23, 2018).Google Scholar
California Legislative Information: AB-2832 Recycling and Reuse: Lithium-Ion Batteries (2018). Available at: http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180AB2832 (accessed May 23, 2018).Google Scholar
California Legislative Information: AB-2407 Recycling: Lithium-Ion Vehicle Batteries. Advisory Group. Available at: https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180AB2407 (accessed May 23, 2018).Google Scholar
Harland, L.: The dirty effects of clean energy technology: Supportive regulations to promote recycling of lithium ion vehicle batteries. San Diego J. Climate & Energy Law 7, 167–188 (2016). Available at: http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/sdjclimel7&div=8&id=&page= (accessed May 23, 2018).Google Scholar
Gaines, L.: The future of automotive lithium-ion battery recycling: Charting a sustainable course. Sustainable Mater. Technol. 1–2, 2–7 (2014).CrossRefGoogle Scholar