<span class='italic'>Clostridium Difficile</span> Infection

doi:10.1017/9781107153165.019

Bartlett, JG. Clostridium difficile infection: historic review. Anaerobe. 2009;15(6):227–229.10.1016/j.anaerobe.2009.09.004CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kelly, CP, Pothoulakis, C, LaMont, JT. Clostridium difficile colitis. N Engl J Med. 1994;330(4):257–262.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Magill, SS, Edwards, JR, Bamberg, W, et al. Multistate point-prevalence survey of health care-associated infections. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(13):1198–1208.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kwon, JH, Olsen, MA, Dubberke, ER. The morbidity, mortality, and costs associated with Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2015;29(1):123–134.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bartlett, JG. Narrative review: the new epidemic of Clostridium difficile–associated enteric disease. Ann Intern Med. 2006;145(10):758–764.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Honda, H, Dubberke, ER. The changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2014;30(1):54–62.10.1097/MOG.0000000000000018CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

al Saif, N, Brazier, JS. The distribution of Clostridium difficile in the environment of South Wales. J Med Microbiol. 1996;45(2):133–137.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bakri, MM, Brown, DJ, Butcher, JP, Sutherland, AD. Clostridium difficile in ready-to-eat salads, Scotland. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15(5):817–818.10.3201/eid1505.081186CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gould, LH, Limbago, B. Clostridium difficile in food and domestic animals: a new foodborne pathogen? Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51(5):577–582.10.1086/655692CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Songer, JG, Trinh, HT, Killgore, GE, Thompson, AD, McDonald, LC, Limbago, BM. Clostridium difficile in retail meat products, USA, 2007. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15(5):819–21.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Rupnik, M. Is Clostridium difficile-associated infection a potentially zoonotic and foodborne disease? Clin Microbiol Infect. 2007;13(5):457–459.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Muto, CA, Blank, MK, Marsh, JW, et al. Control of an outbreak of infection with the hypervirulent Clostridium difficile BI strain in a university hospital using a comprehensive “bundle” approach. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45(10):1266–1273.CrossRef Google Scholar

Lessa, FC, Mu, Y, Bamberg, WM, et al. Burden of Clostridium difficile infection in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(9):825–834.10.1056/NEJMoa1408913CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dubberke, ER, Schaefer, E, Reske, KA, Zilberberg, M, Hollenbeak, CS, Olsen, MA. Attributable inpatient costs of recurrent Clostridium difficile infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(11):1400–1407.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Chitnis, AS, Holzbauer, SM, Belflower, RM, et al. Epidemiology of community-associated Clostridium difficile infection, 2009 through 2011. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(14):1359–1367.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Alasmari, F, Seiler, SM, Hink, T, Burnham, CA, Dubberke, ER. Prevalence and risk factors for asymptomatic Clostridium difficile carriage. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59(2):216–222.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fekety, R, Kim, KH, Brown, D, Batts, DH, Cudmore, M, Silva, J, Jr. Epidemiology of antibiotic-associated colitis: isolation of Clostridium difficile from the hospital environment. Am J Med. 1981;70(4):906–908.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Jump, RL, Pultz, MJ, Donskey, CJ. Vegetative Clostridium difficile survives in room air on moist surfaces and in gastric contents with reduced acidity: a potential mechanism to explain the association between proton pump inhibitors and C. difficile-associated diarrhea? Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2007;51(8):2883–2887.10.1128/AAC.01443-06CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

McFarland, LV, Mulligan, ME, Kwok, RY, Stamm, WE. Nosocomial acquisition of Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med. 1989;320(4):204–210.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Sunenshine, RH, McDonald, LC. Clostridium difficile–associated disease: new challenges from an established pathogen. Cleve Clin J Med. 2006;73(2):187–197.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hurley, BW, Nguyen, CC. The spectrum of pseudomembranous enterocolitis and antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162(19):2177–2184.10.1001/archinte.162.19.2177CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Donskey, CJ. The role of the intestinal tract as a reservoir and source for transmission of nosocomial pathogens. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(2):219–226.10.1086/422002CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cohen, SH, Gerding, DN, Johnson, S, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the society for healthcare epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the infectious diseases society of America (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31(5):431–455.10.1086/651706CrossRef Google Scholar

Loo, VG, Bourgault, AM, Poirier, L, et al. Host and pathogen factors for Clostridium difficile infection and colonization. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(18):1693–1703.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Olsen, MA, Stwalley, D, Demont, C, Mahe, C, Dubberke, ER. Minimal contribution of age to risk of Clostridium difficile infection in the elderly. ID Week. 2015. 10-8-2015.Google Scholar

Bignardi, GE. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect. 1998;40(1):1–15.10.1016/S0195-6701(98)90019-6CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dubberke, ER, Reske, KA, Seiler, S, Hink, T, Kwon, JH, Burnham, CA. Risk factors for acquisition and loss of C. difficile colonization in hospitalized patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;.10.1128/AAC.00642-15CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

McFarland, LV, Surawicz, CM, Stamm, WE. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile carriage and C. difficile-associated diarrhea in a cohort of hospitalized patients. J Infect Dis. 1990;162(3):678–684.CrossRef Google Scholar

Zacharioudakis, IM, Zervou, FN, Pliakos, EE, Ziakas, PD, Mylonakis, E. Colonization with toxinogenic C. difficile upon hospital admission, and risk of infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2015;110(3):381–390.10.1038/ajg.2015.22CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bagdasarian, N, Rao, K, Malani, PN. Diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile in adults: a systematic review. JAMA. 2015;313(4):398–408.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wanahita, A, Goldsmith, EA, Musher, DM. Conditions associated with leukocytosis in a tertiary care hospital, with particular attention to the role of infection caused by Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34(12):1585–1592.10.1086/340536CrossRef Google Scholar

Dubberke, ER, Han, Z, Bobo, L, et al. Impact of clinical symptoms on interpretation of diagnostic assays for Clostridium difficile infections. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49(8):2887–2893.10.1128/JCM.00891-11CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bartlett, JG, Gerding, DN. Clinical recognition and diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46 Suppl 1:S12–S18.10.1086/521863CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Stamper, PD, Alcabasa, R, Aird, D, et al. Comparison of a commercial real-time PCR assay for tcdB detection to a cell culture cytotoxicity assay and toxigenic culture for direct detection of toxin-producing Clostridium difficile in clinical samples. J Clin Microbiol. 2009;47(2):373–378.10.1128/JCM.01613-08CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wilkins, TD, Lyerly, DM. Clostridium difficile testing: after 20 years, still challenging. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(2):531–534.10.1128/JCM.41.2.531-534.2003CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dubberke, ER, Burnham, CD. Diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection: treat the patient, not the test. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;1–2.Google Scholar

Aichinger, E, Schleck, CD, Harmsen, WS, Nyre, LM, Patel, R. Nonutility of repeat laboratory testing for detection of Clostridium difficile by use of PCR or enzyme immunoassay. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46(11):3795–3797.10.1128/JCM.00684-08CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gerding, DN, Johnson, S, Peterson, LR, Mulligan, ME, Silva, J, Jr. Clostridium difficile–associated diarrhea and colitis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1995;16(8):459–477.10.1086/648363CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ticehurst, JR, Aird, DZ, Dam, LM, Borek, AP, Hargrove, JT, Carroll, KC. Effective detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile by a two-step algorithm including tests for antigen and cytotoxin. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44(3):1145–1149.10.1128/JCM.44.3.1145-1149.2006CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Shanholtzer, CJ, Willard, KE, Holter, JJ, Olson, MM, Gerding, DN, Peterson, LR. Comparison of the VIDAS Clostridium difficile toxin A immunoassay with C. difficile culture and cytotoxin and latex tests. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(7):1837–1840.CrossRef Google Scholar

Longtin, Y, Trottier, S, Brochu, G, et al. Impact of the type of diagnostic assay on Clostridium difficile infection and complication rates in a mandatory reporting program. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56(1):67–73.10.1093/cid/cis840CrossRef Google Scholar

van den Berg, RJ, Bruijnesteijn van Coppenraet, LS, Gerritsen, HJ, Endtz, HP, van der Vorm, ER, Kuijper, EJ. Prospective multicenter evaluation of a new immunoassay and real-time PCR for rapid diagnosis of Clostridium difficile–associated diarrhea in hospitalized patients. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43(10):5338–5340.10.1128/JCM.43.10.5338-5340.2005CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bartlett, JG. Clinical practice: antibiotic-associated diarrhea. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(5):334–339.10.1056/NEJMcp011603CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Shannon-Lowe, J, Matheson, NJ, Cooke, FJ, Aliyu, SH. Prevention and medical management of Clostridium difficile infection. BMJ. 2010;340:c1296.10.1136/bmj.c1296CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Louie, TJ, Miller, MA, Mullane, KM, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(5):422–431.10.1056/NEJMoa0910812CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Johnson, S, Louie, TJ, Gerding, DN, et al. Vancomycin, metronidazole, or tolevamer for Clostridium difficile infection: results from two multinational, randomized, controlled trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59(3):345–354.10.1093/cid/ciu313CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Johnson, S. Recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a review of risk factors, treatments, and outcomes. J Infect. 2009;58(6):403–410.10.1016/j.jinf.2009.03.010CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Garey, KW, Ghantoji, SS, Shah, DN, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study to assess the ability of rifaximin to prevent recurrent diarrhoea in patients with Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66(12):2850–2855.10.1093/jac/dkr377CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Soriano, MM, Danziger, LH, Gerding, DN, Johnson, S. Novel fidaxomicin treatment regimens for patients with multiple clostridium difficile infection recurrences that are refractory to standard therapies. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2014;1(2):ofu069.10.1093/ofid/ofu069CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cammarota, G, Ianiro, G, Gasbarrini, A. Fecal microbiota transplantation for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2014 Jan 16.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hirsch, BE, Saraiya, N, Poeth, K, Schwartz, RM, Epstein, ME, Honig, G. Effectiveness of fecal-derived microbiota transfer using orally administered capsules for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:191.10.1186/s12879-015-0930-zCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Orenstein, R, Dubberke, E, Hardi, R, et al. Safety and durability of RBX2660 (microbiota suspension) for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: results of the PUNCH CD Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2015 Nov 12.Google Scholar PubMed

van Nood, E, Vrieze, A, Nieuwdorp, M, et al. Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(5):407–415.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Youngster, I, Russell, GH, Pindar, C, Ziv-Baran, T, Sauk, J, Hohmann, EL. Oral, capsulized, frozen fecal microbiota transplantation for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection. JAMA. 2014;312(17):1772–1778.10.1001/jama.2014.13875CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Guidance for Industry: Enforcement Policy Regarding Investigational New Drug Requirements for Use of Fecal Microbiota for Transplantation to Treat Clostridium difficile Infection Not Responsive to Standard Therapies, Food and Drug Administration, (2013).Google Scholar

Allen, SJ. The potential of probiotics to prevent Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2015;29(1):135–144.10.1016/j.idc.2014.11.002CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gerding, DN, Muto, CA, Owens, RC, Jr. Treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46 Suppl 1:S32–S42.10.1086/521860CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Byrn, JC, Maun, DC, Gingold, DS, Baril, DT, Ozao, JJ, Divino, CM. Predictors of mortality after colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis. Arch Surg. 2008;143(2):150–154.10.1001/archsurg.2007.46CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lamontagne, F, Labbe, AC, Haeck, O, et al. Impact of emergency colectomy on survival of patients with fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis during an epidemic caused by a hypervirulent strain. Ann Surg. 2007;245(2):267–272.10.1097/01.sla.0000236628.79550.e5CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pepin, J, Vo, TT, Boutros, M, et al. Risk factors for mortality following emergency colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile infection. Dis Colon Rectum. 2009;52(3):400–405.10.1007/DCR.0b013e31819a69aaCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Sailhamer, EA, Carson, K, Chang, Y, et al. Fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis: patterns of care and predictors of mortality. Arch Surg. 2009;144(5):433–439.10.1001/archsurg.2009.51CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Neal, MD, Alverdy, JC, Hall, DE, Simmons, RL, Zuckerbraun, BS. Diverting loop ileostomy and colonic lavage: an alternative to total abdominal colectomy for the treatment of severe, complicated Clostridium difficile associated disease. Ann Surg. 2011;254(3):423–427.10.1097/SLA.0b013e31822ade48CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Yokoe, DS, Anderson, DJ, Berenholtz, SM, et al. A compendium of strategies to prevent healthcare-associated infections in acute care hospitals: 2014 updates. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(8):967–977.10.1086/677216CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dubberke, ER, McMullen, KM, Mayfield, JL, et al. Hospital-associated Clostridium difficile infection: is it necessary to track community-onset disease? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009;30(4):332–337.10.1086/596604CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dubberke, ER, Butler, AM, Hota, B, et al. Multicenter study of the impact of community-onset Clostridium difficile infection on surveillance for C. difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009;30(6):518–525.10.1086/597380CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Marschall, J, Mermel, LA, Fakih, M, et al. Strategies to prevent central line–associated bloodstream infections in acute care hospitals: 2014 update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(7):753–771.10.1086/676533CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pronovost, P, Needham, D, Berenholtz, S, et al. An intervention to decrease catheter-related bloodstream infections in the ICU. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(26):2725–2732.10.1056/NEJMoa061115CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Warren, DK, Zack, JE, Cox, MJ, Cohen, MM, Fraser, VJ. An educational intervention to prevent catheter-associated bloodstream infections in a nonteaching, community medical center. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(7):1959–1963.10.1097/01.CCM.0000069513.15417.1CCrossRef Google Scholar

Dubberke, ER, Carling, P, Carrico, R, et al. Strategies to prevent Clostridium difficile infections in acute care hospitals: 2014 Update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(6):628–645.10.1086/676023CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Weiss, K, Boisvert, A, Chagnon, M, et al. Multipronged intervention strategy to control an outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and its impact on the rates of CDI from 2002 to 2007. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009;30(2):156–162.10.1086/593955CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gravel, D, Gardam, M, Taylor, G, et al. Infection control practices related to Clostridium difficile infection in acute care hospitals in Canada. Am J Infect Control. 2009;37(1):9–14.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wilkinson, K, Gravel, D, Taylor, G, et al. Infection prevention and control practices related to Clostridium difficile infection in Canadian acute and long-term care institutions. Am J Infect Control. 2011;39(3):177–182.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Detsky, ME, Etchells, E. Single-patient rooms for safe patient-centered hospitals. JAMA. 2008;300(8):954–956.10.1001/jama.300.8.954CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kundrapu, S, Jury, LA, Sitzlar, B, Sunkesula, VC, Sethi, AK, Donskey, CJ. Easily modified factors contribute to delays in diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection: a cohort study and intervention. J Clin Microbiol. 2013;51(7):2365–2370.10.1128/JCM.03142-12CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Boyce, JM, Pittet, D. Guideline for Hand Hygiene in Health-Care Settings. Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America/Association for Professionals in Infection Control/Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2002;51(RR-16):1–45, quiz.Google Scholar PubMed

Landelle, C, Verachten, M, Legrand, P, Girou, E, Barbut, F, Buisson, CB. Contamination of healthcare workers’ hands with Clostridium difficile spores after caring for patients with C. difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(1):10–15.10.1086/674396CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Edmonds, SL, Zapka, C, Kasper, D, et al. Effectiveness of hand hygiene for removal of Clostridium difficile spores from hands. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2013;34(3):302–305.10.1086/669521CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Shaughnessy, MK, Micielli, RL, Depestel, DD, et al. Evaluation of hospital room assignment and acquisition of Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2011;32(3):201–206.10.1086/658669CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Starr, JM, Campbell, A, Renshaw, E, Poxton, IR, Gibson, GJ. Spatio-temporal stochastic modelling of Clostridium difficile. J Hosp Infect. 2009;71(1):49–56.10.1016/j.jhin.2008.09.013CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kim, KH, Fekety, R, Batts, DH, et al. Isolation of Clostridium difficile from the environment and contacts of patients with antibiotic-associated colitis. J Infect Dis. 1981;143(1):42–50.10.1093/infdis/143.1.42CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dumford, DM III, Nerandzic, MM, Eckstein, BC, Donskey, CJ. What is on that keyboard? Detecting hidden environmental reservoirs of Clostridium difficile during an outbreak associated with North American pulsed-field gel electrophoresis type 1 strains. Am J Infect Control. 2009;37(1):15–19.10.1016/j.ajic.2008.07.009CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Samore, MH, Venkataraman, L, DeGirolami, PC, Arbeit, RD, Karchmer, AW. Clinical and molecular epidemiology of sporadic and clustered cases of nosocomial Clostridium difficile diarrhea. Am J Med. 1996;100(1):32–40.10.1016/S0002-9343(96)90008-XCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cunningham, R, Dale, B, Undy, B, Gaunt, N. Proton pump inhibitors as a risk factor for Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. J Hosp Infect. 2003;54(3):243–245.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Merrigan, M, Venugopal, A, Mallozzi, M, et al. Human hypervirulent Clostridium difficile strains exhibit increased sporulation as well as robust toxin production. J Bacteriol. 2010;192(19):4904–4911.10.1128/JB.00445-10CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dubberke, ER, Reske, KA, Noble-Wang, J, et al. Prevalence of Clostridium difficile environmental contamination and strain variability in multiple health care facilities. Am J Infect Control. 2007;35(5):315–318.10.1016/j.ajic.2006.12.006CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Curry, SR, Muto, CA, Schlackman, JL, et al. Use of multilocus variable number of tandem repeats analysis genotyping to determine the role of asymptomatic carriers in Clostridium difficile transmission. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57(8):1094–1102.10.1093/cid/cit475CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Eyre, DW, Griffiths, D, Vaughan, A, et al. Asymptomatic Clostridium difficile colonisation and onward transmission. PLoS One. 2013;8(11):e78445.10.1371/journal.pone.0078445CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kaatz, GW, Gitlin, SD, Schaberg, DR, et al. Acquisition of Clostridium difficile from the hospital environment. Am J Epidemiol. 1988;127(6):1289–1294.10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114921CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

McMullen, KM, Zack, J, Coopersmith, CM, Kollef, M, Dubberke, E, Warren, DK. Use of hypochlorite solution to decrease rates of Clostridium difficile–associated diarrhea. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2007;28(2):205–207.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Orenstein, R, Aronhalt, KC, McManus, JE Jr., Fedraw, LA. A targeted strategy to wipe out Clostridium difficile. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2011;32(11):1137–119.10.1086/662586CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Mayfield, JL, Leet, T, Miller, J, Mundy, LM. Environmental control to reduce transmission of Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31(4):995–1000.10.1086/318149CrossRef Google Scholar

Wilcox, MH, Fawley, WN, Wigglesworth, N, Parnell, P, Verity, P, Freeman, J. Comparison of the effect of detergent versus hypochlorite cleaning on environmental contamination and incidence of Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect. 2003;54(2):109–114.10.1016/S0195-6701(02)00400-0CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Barbut, F, Menuet, D, Verachten, M, Girou, E. Comparison of the efficacy of a hydrogen peroxide dry-mist disinfection system and sodium hypochlorite solution for eradication of Clostridium difficile spores. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009;30(6):507–514.10.1086/597232CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Boyce, JM, Havill, NL, Otter, JA, et al. Impact of hydrogen peroxide vapor room decontamination on Clostridium difficile environmental contamination and transmission in a healthcare setting. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008;29(8):723–729.10.1086/589906CrossRef Google Scholar

Sitzlar, B, Deshpande, A, Fertelli, D, Kundrapu, S, Sethi, AK, Donskey, CJ. An environmental disinfection odyssey: evaluation of sequential interventions to improve disinfection of Clostridium difficile isolation rooms. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2013;34(5):459–465.10.1086/670217CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Anderson, D, Chen, LF, Weber, DJ, et al. The benefits of enhanced terminal room (betr) disinfection study: a cluster randomized, multicenter crossover study with 2x2 factorial design to evaluate the impact of enhanced terminal room disinfection on acquisition and infection caused by multidrug-resistant organisms (MDRO). ID Week. 2015. 10-9-2015.Google Scholar

Boyce, JM, Havill, NL, Dumigan, DG, Golebiewski, M, Balogun, O, Rizvani, R. Monitoring the effectiveness of hospital cleaning practices by use of an adenosine triphosphate bioluminescence assay. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009;30(7):678–684.10.1086/598243CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Carling, PC, Parry, MF, Von Beheren, SM. Identifying opportunities to enhance environmental cleaning in 23 acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008;29(1):1–7.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dellit, TH, Owens, RC, McGowan, JE Jr., et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America guidelines for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44(2):159–177.10.1086/510393CrossRef Google Scholar

Fridkin, S, Baggs, J, Fagan, R, et al. Vital signs: improving antibiotic use among hospitalized patients. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63(9):194–200.Google Scholar PubMed

Levin, PD, Idrees, S, Sprung, CL, et al. Antimicrobial use in the ICU: indications and accuracy–an observational trial. J Hosp Med. 2012;7(9):672–678.10.1002/jhm.1964CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Camins, BC, King, MD, Wells, JB, et al. Impact of an antimicrobial utilization program on antimicrobial use at a large teaching hospital: a randomized controlled trial. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009;30(10):931–938.CrossRef Google Scholar

Owens, RC Jr., Donskey, CJ, Gaynes, RP, Loo, VG, Muto, CA. Antimicrobial-associated risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2008 ;46 Suppl 1:S19–S31.10.1086/521859CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nuila, F, Cadle, RM, Logan, N, Musher, DM. Antibiotic stewardship and Clostridium difficile–associated disease. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008;29(11):1096–1097.10.1086/591450CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Valiquette, L, Cossette, B, Garant, MP, Diab, H, Pepin, J. Impact of a reduction in the use of high-risk antibiotics on the course of an epidemic of Clostridium difficile–associated disease caused by the hypervirulent NAP1/027 strain. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45 Suppl 2:S112–S121.10.1086/519258CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Goldenberg, JZ, Ma, SS, Saxton, JD, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile–associated diarrhea in adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;5:CD006095.Google Scholar

Pattani, R, Palda, VA, Hwang, SW, Shah, PS. Probiotics for the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and Clostridium difficile infection among hospitalized patients: systematic review and meta-analysis. Open Med. 2013;7(2):e56–e67.Google Scholar PubMed

Johnson, S, Maziade, PJ, McFarland, LV, et al. Is primary prevention of Clostridium difficile infection possible with specific probiotics? Int J Infect Dis. 2012;16(11):e786–e792.10.1016/j.ijid.2012.06.005CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dubberke, ER, Reske, KA, Yan, Y, Olsen, MA, McDonald, LC, Fraser, VJ. Clostridium difficile–associated disease in a setting of endemicity: identification of novel risk factors. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45(12):1543–1549.10.1086/523582CrossRef Google Scholar

Dubberke, ER, Butler, AM, Yokoe, DS, et al. Multicenter study of Clostridium difficile infection rates from 2000 to 2006. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31(10):1030–1037.10.1086/656245CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Loo, VG, Poirier, L, Miller, MA, et al. A predominantly clonal multi-institutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(23):2442–2449.10.1056/NEJMoa051639CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gao, XW, Mubasher, M, Fang, CY, Reifer, C, Miller, LE. Dose-response efficacy of a proprietary probiotic formula of Lactobacillus acidophilus CL1285 and Lactobacillus casei LBC80 R for antibiotic-associated diarrhea and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea prophylaxis in adult patients. Am J Gastroenterol. 2010;105(7):1636–1641.10.1038/ajg.2010.11CrossRef Google Scholar

Kotowska, M, Albrecht, P, Szajewska, H. Saccharomyces boulardii in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea in children: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2005;21(5):583–590.10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02356.xCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hennequin, C, Kauffmann-Lacroix, C, Jobert, A, et al. Possible role of catheters in Saccharomyces boulardii fungemia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2000;19(1):16–20.10.1007/s100960050003CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Enache-Angoulvant, A, Hennequin, C. Invasive Saccharomyces infection: a comprehensive review. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(11):1559–1568.10.1086/497832CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gouriet, F, Million, M, Henri, M, Fournier, PE, Raoult, D. Lactobacillus rhamnosus bacteremia: an emerging clinical entity. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012;31(9):2469–2480.10.1007/s10096-012-1599-5CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Eyre, DW, Cule, ML, Wilson, DJ, et al. Diverse sources of C. difficile infection identified on whole-genome sequencing. N Engl J Med. 2013;369(13):1195–1205.10.1056/NEJMoa1216064CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lanzas, C, Dubberke, ER, Lu, Z, Reske, KA, Grohn, YT. Epidemiological model for Clostridium difficile transmission in healthcare settings. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2011;32(6):553–561.10.1086/660013CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

McDonald, EG, Milligan, J, Frenette, C, Lee, TC. Continuous proton pump inhibitor therapy and the associated risk of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175(5):784–791.10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.42CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed