A History of Modern-Day Video Surgery with and without Robotic Assistance

doi:10.1017/9781108561440.003

Chapter 1 - A History of Modern-Day Video Surgery with and without Robotic Assistance

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 November 2025

Nataliya Vang and

Edited by

Nisha Lakhi and

Camran R. Nezhat: Affiliation:
Stanford University School of Medicine, California
Farr R. Nezhat: Affiliation:
Nezhat Surgery for Gynecology/Oncology, New York
Ceana Nezhat: Affiliation:
Nezhat Medical Center, Atlanta
Nisha Lakhi: Affiliation:
Richmond University Medical Center, New York
Azadeh Nezhat: Affiliation:
Nezhat Institute and Center for Special Minimally Invasive and Robotic Surgery, California

Book contents

Get access

Summary

One of the most significant advancements in modern medicine has been the shift away from large incision “open” surgeries to video-assisted endoscopy, a groundbreaking innovation invented and pioneered by Camran Nezhat, MD, in the late 1970s.[1–4] Initially referred to as “keyhole,” “Band-Aid,” video surgery, or video laparoscopy, video-assisted endoscopy and video-assisted thoracoscopy (VAT) are now universally referred to as “minimally invasive surgery” (MIS), with or without robotic assistance. Dismissed as a barbaric and dangerous gimmick just 30 years ago, today MIS is recognized for profoundly improving the health outcomes of hundreds of millions of patients around the world. Indeed, with countless lives saved and millions of hospitalizations and surgery-related permanent disabilities prevented, the transformative impact that MIS has had on patients has been so remarkable that it has been described as a change to surgery as revolutionary for our era as anesthesia was for the nineteenth century.

Information

Type: Chapter
Information: Nezhat's Textbook of Minimally Invasive Surgery
Including Hysteroscopy, Vaginoscopy and Robotic-Assisted Procedures
, pp. 1 - 25

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108561440.003 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2025

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Tokunaga, R. Video surgery expands its scope. Stanf Med 1993;1994(11):12–16.Google Scholar

Podratz, K. Degrees of freedom: advances in gynecological and obstetrical surgery. In Remembering Milestones and Achievements in Surgery: Inspiring Quality for a Hundred Years, 1913–2012. American College of Surgeons; July 13, 2016.Google Scholar

Carter, JE. Biography of Camran Nezhat, MD, FACOG, FACS. JSLS 2006;10(2):275–280.Google Scholar

Kelley, WE. The evolution of laparoscopy and the revolution in surgery in the decade of the 1990s. JSLS 2008;12(4):351–357.Google Scholar

McMahon, AJ, Fischbacher, CM, Frame, SH, MacLeod, MC. Impact of laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a population-based study. Lancet 2000;356(9242):1632–1637. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)03156-1CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Sgambati, S, Ballantyne, G. Minimally invasive surgery for diseases of the colon and rectum: the legacy of an ancient tradition. In Jager, RM, Wexner, S, eds. Laparoscopic Colectomy. New York: Churchill Livingston; 1995: 13–23.Google Scholar

Kelley, WE Jr., Bailey, R, Bertelsen, C, et al. Stereotactic automated surgical biopsy using the ABBI biopsy device: a multicenter study. Breast J 1998;4(5):302–306. doi:10.1046/j.1524-4741.1998.450302.xCrossRef Google Scholar

Katz, MR, Van Praet, F, de Canniere, D, et al. Integrated coronary revascularization. Circulation 2006;114(1 supplement):1-473. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.001537CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Jobe, BA, Duncan, W, Swanstrom, LL. Totally laparoscopic abdominal aortic aneurysm repair. Surg Endosc 1999;13:77–79.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Matsumoto, M, Hata, T, Tsushima, Y, et al. Minimally invasive vascular surgery for repair of infrarenal abdominal aortic aneurysm with iliac involvement. J Vasc Surg 2002;35(4):654–660. doi:10.1067/mva.2002.121745CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Schuessler, WW, Schulam, PG, Clayman, RV, Kavoussi, LR. Laparoscopic radical prostatectomy: initial short-term experience. Urology 1997;50(6):854–857. doi:10.1016/S0090-4295(97)00543-8CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gagner, M. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy in Cushing’s syndrome and pheochromocytoma. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1033.Google Scholar PubMed

Carroll, BJ, Phillips, EH, Semel, CJ, Fallas, M, Morgenstern, L. Laparoscopic splenectomy. Surg Endosc 1992;6:183–185.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Katkhouda, N, Mouiel, J. A new technique of surgical treatment of chronic duodenal ulcer without laparotomy by videocoelioscopy. Am J Surg 1991;161(3):361–364. doi:10.1016/0002-9610(91)90598-8CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

AAGL Position Statement: Route of Hysterectomy to Treat Benign Uterine Disease. Accessed October 12, 2023. https://com-obgyn.sites.medinfo.ufl.edu/files/2013/04/AAGL-Position-Statement.pdf Google Scholar

Nezhat, FR, Kavic, M, Nezhat, CH, Nezhat, C. Forward we go! JSLS 2023;27(1):e2022.00073. doi:10.4293/JSLS.2022.00073CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nelson, H. Laparoscopically assisted colectomy is as safe and effective as open colectomy in people with colon cancer. Cancer Treat Rev 2004;30(8):707–709.Google Scholar

Pappas, TN, Jacobs, DO. Laparoscopic resection for colon cancer – the end of the beginning? N Engl J Med 2004;350(20):2091–2092. doi:10.1056/NEJMe048076CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C. Operative endoscopy will replace almost all open procedures. JSLS 2004;8(2):101–102.Google Scholar PubMed

Gunning, JE. The history of laparoscopy. J Reprod Med 1974;12(6):222–226.Google Scholar PubMed

Bozzini, P. Der Lichtleiter oder Beschreibung einer einfachen Vorrichtung und ihrer Anwendung zur Erleuchtung innerer Höhlen und Zwischenräume des lebenden animalischen Körpers. Weimar: Landes-Industrie-Comptoir; 1807.Google Scholar

Nordentoeft, S. Uber endoskopie geschlossener kavitaten mittels meines trokar-endoskopes. Verh Deutch Ges Gyn 1912;41:78–81.Google Scholar

Litynski, GS. Highlights in the History of Laparoscopy: The Development of Laparoscopic Techniques – A Cumulative Effort of Internists, Gynecologists, and Surgeons. Barbara Bernert Verlag; 1996.Google Scholar

Short, AR. The uses of coelioscopy. Br Med J 1925;2(3371):254–255.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hopkins, HH, Kapany, NS. A flexible fibrescope, using static scanning. Nature 1954;173(4392):39–41. doi:10.1038/173039b0CrossRef Google Scholar

Hirschowitz, BI, Curtiss, LE, Peters, CW, Pollard, HM. Demonstration of a new gastroscope, the “fiberscope.” Gastroenterology 1958;35(1):50–53.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Palmer, R. La coelioscopie gynecologique, ses possibilites et ses indications actuelles. Semin Hop Paris 1954;30:441.Google Scholar

Nezhat, C, Page, BJ. Nezhat’s History of Endoscopy: A Historical Analysis of Endoscopy’s Ascension since Antiquity. Tuttlinger, Germany: Endo Press; 2011.Google Scholar

Fragenheim, H, Finzer, KH. Laparoscopy and Culdoscopy in Gynaecology. London: Butterworths; 1972: 109.Google Scholar

Ricci, JV. One Hundred Years of Gynaecology, 1800–1900: A Comprehensive Review of the Specialty during Its Greatest Century with Summaries and Case Reports of All Diseases Pertaining to Women. Blakiston Company; 1945.Google Scholar

Berci, G, Mitchell, JP. Present and future developments in endoscopy [and discussion]. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1977;195(1119):235–242.Google Scholar PubMed

Dolley, FS, Brewer, LA. Chest injuries. Ann Surg 1942;116(5):668.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hadley, GD. The gastro-camera. Br Med J 1965;2(5472):1209–1212.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Soulas, A. Televised bronchoscopy. Presse Med 1956;64:97.Google Scholar

Olson, V, Berci, G. Teaching attachments. In Berci, C, ed. Endoscopy. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1976: 69–73.Google Scholar

Phillips, JM. Endoscopy in Gynecology: The Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Gynecologic Endoscopy, San Francisco, California. American Association of Gynecologic Laparoscopists; 1977.Google Scholar

Berci, G. Endoscopy today. 2. Flexible fiber endoscopes. Postgrad Med 1972;51(3):111–113.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Berci, G. Present and future developments in endoscopy. Proc R Soc Lond 1977;195:235–242.Google Scholar PubMed

Boesch, PF. Laparoskopie. Schweiz Z Krankenh Anst 1936;6:62.Google Scholar

Soderstrom, RM. A history of the American Association of Gynecologic Laparoscopists. J Am Assoc Gynecol Laparosc 2001;8(4):475–485. doi:10.1016/S1074-3804(05)60607-XCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Phillips, JM. Complications in laparoscopy. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1977;15(2):157–162. doi:10.1002/j.1879-3479.1977.tb00668.xCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fuller, J, Scott, W, Ashar, B, Corrado, J. Laparoscopic trocar injuries: a report from a US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH) Systematic Technology Assessment of Medical Products (STAMP) Committee. FDA Saf Commun. Published online 2003.Google Scholar

Jamieson, DJ, Hillis, SD, Duerr, A, et al. Complications of interval laparoscopic tubal sterilization: findings from the United States Collaborative Review of Sterilization. Obstet Gynecol 2000;96(6):997–1002. doi:10.1016/S0029-7844(00)01082-6Google Scholar PubMed

Williams, PP. Avoiding laparoscopy complications. Fertil Steril 1974;25(3):280–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0015-0282(16)40277-3 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Soderstrom, RM. Sterilization failures and their causes. Am J Obstet Gynecol.1985;152(4):395–403. doi:10.1016/S0002-9378(85)80148-4CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Amara, DP, Nezhat, C, Teng, NNH, et al. Operative laparoscopy in the management of ovarian cancer. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech 1996;6(1):38.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Frangeheim, H. Endoscopy and gynecology. In Philips, JM, ed. The Range and Limits of Operating Laparoscopy in the Diagnosis of Sterility. Published online. Downey, CA: AAGL; 1978.Google Scholar

Holtz, GL, Levinson, CJ, Soderstrom, RM. Manual of Endoscopy. (Martin, DC, ed.). Downey, CA: AAGL; 1990.Google Scholar

Hulka, JF. Textbook of Laparoscopy. Published online. Orlando, FL: Grune and Stratton; 1985.Google Scholar

Baggish, MS. Atlas of Contact Hysteroscopy and Endoscopy. Published online. Urban and Schwarzenber; 1982.Google Scholar

Wheeless, CR Jr. Atlas of Pelvic Surgery. Online edition. 1997. Accessed October 12, 2023. https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130282268757112960 Google Scholar

Nezhat, CH, Malik, S, Nezhat, F, Nezhat, C. Laparoscopic ureteroneocystostomy and vesicopsoas hitch for infiltrative endometriosis. JSLS 2004;8(1):3–7.Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, F, Nezhat, C, Levy, JS. Laparoscopic treatment of symptomatic diaphragmatic endometriosis: a case report. Fertil Steril 1992;58(3):614–616. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(16)55273-XCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C, Nicoll, LM, Bhagan, L, et al. Endometriosis of the diaphragm: four cases treated with a combination of laparoscopy and thoracoscopy. J Minim Invasive Gynecol 2009;16(5):573–580. doi:10.1016/j.jmig.2009.06.012CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C, Winer, WK, Nezhat, F. Laparoscopic removal of dermoid cysts. Obstet Gynecol 1989;73(2):278–281.Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, F, Nezhat, C, Silfen, SL, Fehnel, SH. Laparoscopic ovarian cystectomy during pregnancy. J Laparoendosc Surg 1991;1(3):161–164. doi:10.1089/lps.1991.1.161CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, F, Nezhat, C, Gordon, S, Wilkins, E. Laparoscopic versus abdominal hysterectomy. J Reprod Med 1992;37(3):247–250.Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C, Nezhat, F, Nezhat, C. Operative laparoscopy (minimally invasive surgery): state of the art. J Gynecol Surg 1992;8(3):111–141. doi:10.1089/gyn.1992.8.111CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, CH, Nezhat, F, Nezhat, C, Rottenberg, H. Laparoscopic repair of a vesicovaginal fistula: a case report. Obstet Gynecol 1994;83(5):899.Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, CH, Bastidas, JA, Pennington, E, et al. Laparoscopic treatment of type IV rectovaginal fistula. J Am Assoc Gynecol Laparosc 1998;5(3):297–299. doi:10.1016/S1074-3804(98)80036-4CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, F, Nezhat, C, Bess, O, Nezhat, CH. Laparoscopic amputation of a noncommunicating rudimentary horn after a hysteroscopic diagnosis: a case study. Surg Laparosc Endosc 1994;4(2):155–156.Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C, Kazerooni, T, Berker, B, et al. Laparoscopic management of hepatic endometriosis: Report of two cases and review of the literature. J Minim Invasive Gynecol 2005;12(3):196–200. doi:10.1016/j.jmig.2005.03.015CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C, Nezhat, F. Evaluation of safety of videolaseroscopic treatment of bowel endometriosis. Paper presented at the 44th Annual Meeting of the American Fertility Society. October 1988, Atlanta, GA.Google Scholar

Nezhat, C, Nezhat, FR. Safe laser endoscopic excision or vaporization of peritoneal endometriosis. Fertil Steril 1989;52(1):149–151.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C, Pennington, E, Nezhat, F, Silfen, SL. Laparoscopically assisted anterior rectal wall resection and reanastomosis for deeply infiltrating endometriosis. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech 1991;1(2):106.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, F, Nezhat, C, Pennington, E. Laparoscopic proctectomy for infiltrating endometriosis of the rectum. Fertil Steril 1992;57(5):1129–1132. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(16)55039-0CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, CR, Nezhat, FR. Laparoscopic segmental bladder resection for endometriosis: a report of two cases. Obstet Gynecol 1993;81(5):882.Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, F, Nezhat, C, Pennington, E, Ambroze, WJ. Laparoscopic segmental resection for infiltrating endometriosis of the rectosigmoid colon: a preliminary report. Surg Laparosc Endosc 1992;2(3):212–216.Google Scholar

Nezhat, C, Nezhat, F, Pennington, E. Laparoscopic treatment of infiltrative rectosigmoid colon and rectovaginal septum endometriosis by the technique of videolaparoscopy and the CO₂ laser. BJOG 1992;99(8):664-667. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1992.tb13851.xCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C, Nezhat, F, Pennington, E, Nezhat, CH, Ambroze, W. Laparoscopic disk excision and primary repair of the anterior rectal wall for the treatment of full-thickness bowel endometriosis. Surg Endosc 1994;8(6):682–685. doi:10.1007/BF00678566CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C, Nezhat, F, Ambroze, W, Pennington, E. Laparoscopic repair of small bowel and colon. Surg Endosc 1993;7(2):88–89. doi:10.1007/BF00704384CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C. Tenth Annual Baltimore-Washington Seminar & Tutorial. December. 1989. 1989;13(15).Google Scholar

Nezhat, CR, Nezhat, FR, Silfen, SL. Videolaseroscopy. The CO₂ laser for advanced operative laparoscopy. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1991;18(3):585–604.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, CR, Burrell, MO, Nezhat, FR, Benigno, BB, Welander, CE. Laparoscopic radical hysterectomy with paraaortic and pelvic node dissection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;166(3):864–865. doi:10.1016/0002-9378(92)91351-ACrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, CR, Nezhat, FR, Burrell, MO, et al. Laparoscopic radical hysterectomy and laparoscopically assisted vaginal radical hysterectomy with pelvic and paraaortic node dissection. J Gynecol Surg 1993;9(2):105–120. doi:10.1089/gyn.1993.9.105CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C, Nezhat, F, Green, B. Laparoscopic treatment of obstructed ureter due to endometriosis by resection and ureteroureterostomy: a case report. J Urol 1992;148(3 Part 1):865–868. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(17)36747-2CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, CR. My journey with the AAGL. J Minim Invasive Gynecol 2010;17(3):271–277. doi:10.1016/j.jmig.2010.01.006CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wallis, C. Medicine: the career woman’s disease? Time 1986;28:62.Google Scholar

Clark, M, Carroll, G. Conquering endometriosis. Lasers battle “the career woman’s disease.” Newsweek 1986;13:95.Google Scholar

Hunter, JG. SAGES 1989–1999: a video romance. Surg Endosc 1999;13(9):833–837. doi:10.1007/s004649901115CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C, Nezhat, F, Nezhat, C. Endometriosis: ancient disease, ancient treatments. Fertil Steril 2012;98(6):S1–S62. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2012.08.001CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Duncan, CH, Taylor, HC. A psychosomatic study of pelvic congestion. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1952;64(1):1–12. doi:10.1016/S0002-9378(16)38730-0CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Beard, RW, Belsey, EM, Lieberman, BA, Wilkinson, JCM. Pelvic pain in women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1977;128(5):566–570. doi:10.1016/0002-9378(77)90043-6CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wilde, GJS. Neurotische Labiliteit Gemeten Volgens de Vragenlijstmethode. van Rossen; 1963.Google Scholar

Williams, M. Black women often misdiagnosed with STDs. Healthsharing 1993;14(1):9. Accessed October 12, 2023. https://riseupfeministarchive.ca/publications/healthsharing/1993_healthsharing_vol_14_no_1_spring_summer/Google Scholar

Gomel, V, Taylor, PJ. Diagnostic and Operative Gynecologic Laparoscopy. Philadelphia: Mosby; 1995. Accessed October 12, 2023. https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130282268974443392 Google Scholar

McCracken, P. The Curse of Eve, the Wound of the Hero: Blood, Gender, and Medieval Literature. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press; 2010. doi:10.9783/9780812202755Google Scholar

Bontempo, AC, Mikese, L. Patient perception of misdiagnosis of endometriosis: results from an online national survey. Diagnosis (Berl) 2020;7(4):97–106. doi:10.1515/dx-2019-0020CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Jansen, RPS, Russell, P. Nonpigmented endometriosis: clinical, laparoscopic, and pathologic definition. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986;155(6):1154–1159. doi:10.1016/0002-9378(86)90136-5CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hunt, RB. Atlas of Female Infertility Surgery. Philadelphia: Mosby-Year Book; 1992.Google Scholar

Dumesic, DA. Endometriosis: advanced management and surgical techniques. Mayo Clin Proc 1995;70(9):918–919. doi:10.4065/70.9.918-bCrossRef Google Scholar

Perper, MM, Nezhat, F, Goldstein, H, Nezhat, CH, Nezhat, C. Dysmenorrhea is related to the number of implants in endometriosis patients. Fertil Steril 1995;63(3):500–503. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(16)57416-0CrossRef Google Scholar

Soderstrom, RM, ed. Operative Laparoscopy: The Masters’ Techniques in Gynecologic Surgery. Philadelphia: Lippincott Raven; 1993. Accessed October 12, 2023. https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130282272659301888 Google Scholar

Koninckx, PR, Martin, DC. Deep endometriosis: a consequence of infiltration or retraction or possibly adenomyosis externa? Fertil Steril 1992;58(5):924–928. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(16)55436-3CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C, Littman, ED, Lathi, RB, et al. The dilemma of endometriosis: is consensus possible with an enigma? Fertil Steril 2005;84(6):1587–1588. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2005.06.033CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nishida, M, Watanabe, K, Sato, N, Ichikawa, Y. Malignant transformation of ovarian endometriosis. Gynecol Obstet Invest 2000;50 Suppl 1:18–25. doi:10.1159/000052874CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Olive, DL, Haney, AF. Endometriosis – associated infertility: a critical review of therapeutic approaches. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1986;41(9):538–555.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Donnez, J, Smets, M, Jadoul, P, Pirard, C, Squifflet, J. Laparoscopic management of peritoneal endometriosis, endometriotic cysts, and rectovaginal adenomyosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003;997(1):274–281. doi:10.1196/annals.1290.031CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Moore, J, Copley, S, Morris, J, et al. A systematic review of the accuracy of ultrasound in the diagnosis of endometriosis. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2002;20(6):630–634. doi:10.1046/j.1469-0705.2002.00862.xCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Koninckx, PR. Biases in the endometriosis literature: illustrated by 20 years of endometriosis research in Leuven. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1998;81(2):259–271. doi:10.1016/S0301-2115(98)00200-0CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Soriano, D, Yefet, Y, Seidman, DS, et al. Laparoscopy versus laparotomy in the management of adnexal masses during pregnancy. Fertil Steril 1999;71(5):955–960. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(99)00064-3CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cullen, TS. The distribution of adenomyomas containing uterine mucosa. Arch Surg 1920;1(2):215–283.CrossRef Google Scholar

Doctors at El Camino Hospital perform unprecedented surgery on highly developed case of endometriosis. El Camino Health. June 15, 2010. Accessed October 12, 2023. https://www.elcaminohealth.org/news/doctors-el-camino-hospital-perform-unprecedented-surgery-highly-developed-case-endometriosis Google Scholar

Crosignani, PG, Vercellini, P. Endometriosis: conservative surgery for severe endometriosis: should laparotomy be abandoned definitively? Hum Reprod 1995;10(9):2412–2418. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.humrep.a136309CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Shushan, A, Mohamed, H, Magos, AL. How long does laparoscopic surgery really take? Lessons learned from 1000 operative laparoscopies. Hum Reprod 1999;14(1):39–43. doi:10.1093/humrep/14.1.39CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Siegler, AM, Berenyi, KJ. Laparoscopy in gynecology. Obstet Gynecol 1969;34(4):572.Google Scholar PubMed

Warshaw, AL, Tepper, JE, Shipley, WU. Laparoscopy in the staging and planning of therapy for pancreatic cancer. Am J Surg 1986;151(1):76–80. doi:10.1016/0002-9610(86)90015-2CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wernsing, DS. The evolving role of laparoscopy in the surgical management of oncology patients. Community Oncol 2006;8(3):507-511. doi:10.1016/S1548-5315(11)70743-4CrossRef Google Scholar

Grimes, DA. Frontiers of operative laparoscopy: a review and critique of the evidence. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;166(4):1062–1071. doi:10.1016/S0002-9378(11)90591-2CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, Camran. Wikipedia 2023. Accessed October 12, 2023. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camran_Nezhat&oldid=1170224016 Google Scholar

Nezhat, F, Cohen, C, Rahaman, J, et al. Comparative immunohistochemical studies of bcl-2 and p53 proteins in benign and malignant ovarian endometriotic cysts. Cancer 2002;94(11):2935–2940. doi:10.1002/cncr.10566CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kelly, MG, Pejovic, T, Nezhat, FR. What is the relationship between endometriosis and epithelial ovarian cancer? CME J Gynecol Oncol 2003;8(1):41–47.Google Scholar

Nezhat, FR, DeNoble, SM, Liu, CS, et al. The safety and efficacy of laparoscopic surgical staging and debulking of apparent advanced stage ovarian, fallopian tube, and primary peritoneal cancers. JSLS 2010;14(2):155–168. doi:10.4293/108680810X12785289143990CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Acholonu, UC, Chang-Jackson, SCR, Radjabi, AR, Nezhat, FR. Laparoscopy for the management of early-stage endometrial cancer: from experimental to standard of care. J Minim Invasive Gynecol 2012;19(4):434–442. doi:10.1016/j.jmig.2012.02.006CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pitkin, RM. Operative laparoscopy: surgical advance or technical gimmick? Obstet Gynecol 1992;79(3):441–442. Accessed October 12, 2023. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1531382/Google Scholar PubMed

Dubois, F, Icard, P, Berthelot, G, Levard, H. Coelioscopic cholecystectomy. Preliminary report of 36 cases. Ann Surg 1990;211(1):60–62.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Clarke, HC. Laparoscopy – new instruments for suturing and ligation. Fertil Steril 1972;23(4):274–277. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(16)38886-0CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Barham, M. Laparoscopic vaginal delivery: report of a case, literature review, and discussion. Obstet Gynecol 2000;95(1):163–165. doi:10.1016/S0029-7844(99)00512-8CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Advincula, AP. Editorial: refocusing the endoscope. Female Patient (OB GYN ed) 2003;28(10):10-10.Google Scholar

Weiser, TG, Regenbogen, SE, Thompson, KD, et al. An estimation of the global volume of surgery: a modelling strategy based on available data. Lancet 2008;372(9633):139–144.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Seidman, DS, Nezhat, C. Is the laparoscopic bubble bursting?. Lancet 1996;347(9000):542–543. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(96)91174-5CrossRef Google Scholar

Scully, D. Men Who Control Women’s Health: The Miseducation of Obstetrician Gynecologists. Boston: Houghton Mifflin; 1980. Accessed October 12, 2023. https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/785453 Google Scholar

Perlman, D. Stanford cancels suspensions of 3 laser surgeons. SFGATE. August 15, 2002. Accessed October 12, 2023. https://www.sfgate.com/health/article/Stanford-cancels-suspensions-of-3-laser-surgeons-2810702.php Google Scholar

Yong, JL, Law, WL, Lo, CY, Lam, CM. A comparative study of routine laparoscopic versus open appendectomy. JSLS 2006;10(2):188–192.Google Scholar PubMed

Rashid, P, Goad, J, Aron, M, Gianduzzo, T, Gill, IS. Laparoscopic partial nephrectomy: integration of an advanced laparoscopic technique. ANZ J Surg 2008;78(6):471–475. doi:10.1111/j.1445-2197.2008.04537.xCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pitkin, RM, Parker, WH. Operative laparoscopy: a second look after 18 years. Obstet Gynecol 2010;115(5):890. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181daf60aCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nezhat, C, Nezhat, F, Nezhat, C. Nezhat’s Video-Assisted and Robotic-Assisted Laparoscopy and Hysteroscopy with DVD. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2013.Google Scholar

Schropp, KP. History of pediatric laparoscopy and thoracoscopy. In Lobe, PE, Schropp, KP, eds. Pediatric Laparoscopy and Thoracoscopy Philadelpha: WB Saunders; 1994: 1–5.Google Scholar

Hall, JC, Tarala, RA, Hall, JL, Mander, J. A multivariate analysis of the risk of pulmonary complications after laparotomy. Chest 1991;99(4):923–927. doi:10.1378/chest.99.4.923CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Handa, V, Le, LV. Te Linde’s Operative Gynecology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2019.Google Scholar

Pj, C. The epidemiology of wound infection. A 10-year prospective study of 62,939 wounds. Surg Clin North Am 1980;60:27–40.Google Scholar

Bucknall, TE, Cox, PJ, Ellis, H. Burst abdomen and incisional hernia: a prospective study of 1129 major laparotomies. BMJ 1982;284(6320):931–933. doi:10.1136/bmj.284.6320.931CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Deutsch, AA, Zelikovsky, A, Reiss, R. Laparoscopy in the prevention of unnecessary appendicectomies: a prospective study. BJS Br J Surg 1982;69(6):336–337. doi:10.1002/bjs.1800690615CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

DeArmond, GM, Dent, DL, Myers, JG, et al. Appendicitis: selective use of abdominal CT reduces negative appendectomy rate. Surg Infect 2003;4(2):213–218. doi:10.1089/109629603766957013CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Graves, E, Kozak, LJ. National Hospital Discharge Survey; annual summary, 1996. Vital Health Stat 13 1999(140):i–iv, 1–46. Accessed October 12, 2023. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/6607 Google Scholar PubMed

Van Way, CW 3rd, Murphy, JR, Dunn, EL, Elerding, SC. A feasibility study of computer aided diagnosis in appendicitis. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1982;155(5):685–688.Google Scholar PubMed

Eriksson, S, Granström, L, Olander, B, Wretlind, B. Sensitivity of interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein concentrations in the diagnosis of acute appendicitis. Eur J Surg Acta Chir 1995;161(1):41–45.Google Scholar PubMed

Goodwin, AT, Swift, RI, Bartlett, MJ, Fernando, BS, Chadwick, SJ. Can serum interleukin-6 levels predict the outcome of patients with right iliac fossa pain? Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1997;79(2):130–133.Google Scholar PubMed

Owen, TD, Williams, H, Stiff, G, Jenkinson, LR, Rees, BI. Evaluation of the Alvarado Score in acute appendicitis. J R Soc Med 1992;85(2):87–88. doi:10.1177/014107689208500211CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Balthazar, EJ, Rofsky, NM, Zucker, R. Appendicitis: the impact of computed tomography imaging on negative appendectomy and perforation rates. Am J Gastroenterol 1998;93(5):768–771. doi:10.1016/S0002-9270(98)00102-6CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Barrat, C, Catheline, JM, Rizk, N, Champault, GG. Does laparoscopy reduce the incidence of unnecessary appendicectomies? Surg Laparosc Endosc 1999;9(1):27–31.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Smuszkiewicz, P, Trojanowska, I, Tomczak, H. Late diagnosed necrotizing fasciitis as a cause of multiorgan dysfunction syndrome: a case report. Cases J 2008;1(1):125. https://doi.org/10.1186/1757-1626-1-125 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Morgan, DM, Kamdar, NS, Swenson, CW, et al. Nationwide trends in the utilization of and payments for hysterectomy in the United States among commercially insured women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2018;218(4):425.e1–425.e18. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2017.12.218CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lohman, D. “Please, Do Not Make Us Suffer Any More …”: Access to Pain Treatment as a Human Right. Human Rights Watch; 2009. Accessed October 12, 2023.Google Scholar

Accessibility standard: WCAG 2.0 A

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

The PDF of this book conforms to version 2.0 of the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG), ensuring core accessibility principles are addressed and meets the basic (A) level of WCAG compliance, addressing essential accessibility barriers.

Content Navigation

Table of contents navigation
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.

Index navigation
Provides an interactive index, letting you go straight to where a term or subject appears in the text without manual searching.

Reading Order & Textual Equivalents

Single logical reading order
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.

Short alternative textual descriptions
You get concise descriptions (for images, charts, or media clips), ensuring you do not miss crucial information when visual or audio elements are not accessible.

Visual Accessibility

Use of colour is not sole means of conveying information
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.

Structural and Technical Features

ARIA roles provided
You gain clarity from ARIA (Accessible Rich Internet Applications) roles and attributes, as they help assistive technologies interpret how each part of the content functions.