Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-s22k5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-11T18:44:14.077Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

34 - Neuroimaging of obesity

from Section VI - Eating Disorders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 January 2011

By
Gene-Jack Wang ,
Nora D. Volkow ,
Joanna S. Fowler  and
Panayotis K. Thanos
Edited by
Martha E. Shenton  and
Bruce I. Turetsky
Gene-Jack Wang
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York, NY, USA and Medical Department Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, NY, USA
Nora D. Volkow
Affiliation:
National institute of Drug Abuse and National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Bethesda, MD, USA
Joanna S. Fowler
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York, NY, USA and Medical Department Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, NY, USA
Panayotis K. Thanos
Affiliation:
National institute of Drug Abuse and National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Bethesda, MD, USA
Martha E. Shenton
Affiliation:
VA Boston Healthcare System and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School
Bruce I. Turetsky
Affiliation:
University of Pennsylvania
Get access

Summary

Abstract

Obesity is a major public health problem affecting increasingly large numbers of people worldwide. Although it reflects an imbalance between energy intake and expenditure, the core pathophysiological mechanisms responsible for maintaining this balance are not well understood. It is of particular relevance that the maintenance of normal weight requires the coordination of peripheral signals of hunger and satiety and brain responses to either procure and consume food or to stop eating after a meal. Brain imaging studies show that obese individuals have significant deficits in regulation of energy homeostasis (i.e. delayed response to peripheral metabolic signals in the hypothalamus) and the brain circuits that regulate normal eating behavior (i.e. hunger, satiety, motivation, reward, emotion, learning, memory and inhibitory control). Because of the complexity and multi-factorial nature of obesity and eating disorders, future progress will be facilitated by a transdisciplinary approach which integrates modern imaging tools with new knowledge on behavior and genetics to guide the development of effective preventive and therapeutic approaches.

Introduction

According to the National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, an epidemic of obesity has developed in the United States during the past 30 years. Obesity is defined as an excessively high amount of body fat or adipose tissue in relation to lean body mass (Stunkard and Wadden, 1993).

Keywords

amygdalablood oxygen level dependent signalsdopamine pathwaysorbitofrontal cortexobesityinsular cortexfunctional magnetic resonance imagingfunctional neuroimaging techniquesovereating behaviorsomatosensory cortex
Type
Chapter
Information
Understanding Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Insights from Neuroimaging
 , pp. 487 - 509
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abizaid, A, Liu, Z W, Andrews, Z B, et al. 2006. Ghrelin modulates the activity and synaptic input organization of midbrain dopamine neurons while promoting appetite. J Clin Invest 116, 3229–39.Google Scholar
Adam, T C and Epel, E S. 2007. Stress, eating and the reward system. Physiol Behav 91, 449–58.Google Scholar
Ahima, R S and Lazar, M A. 2008. Adipokines and the peripheral and neural control of energy balance. Mol Endocrinol 22, 1023–31.Google Scholar
Ahima, R S, Prabakaran, D, Mantzoros, C, et al. 1996. Role of leptin in the neuroendocrine response to fasting. Nature 382, 250–2.Google Scholar
,American Psychiatric Association. 1994. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychatric Association, 729–31.
Andreoli, M, Tessari, M, Pilla, M, Valerio, E, Hagan, J J and Heidbreder, C A. 2003. Selective antagonism at dopamine D3 receptors prevents nicotine-triggered relapse to nicotine-seeking behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology 28, 1272–80.Google Scholar
Anthony, K, Reed, L J, Dunn, J T, et al. 2006. Attenuation of insulin-evoked responses in brain networks controlling appetite and reward in insulin resistance: The cerebral basis for impaired control of food intake in metabolic syndrome? Diabetes 55, 2986–92.Google Scholar
Arias, M, Crespo Iglesias, J M, Perez, J, Requena-Caballero, I, Sesar-Ignacio, A and Peleteiro-Fernandez, M. 2002. Kleine–Levin syndrome: Contribution of brain SPECT in diagnosis. Rev Neurol 35, 531–3.Google Scholar
Aronne, L J and Thornton-Jones, Z D. 2007. New targets for obesity pharmacotherapy. Clin Pharmacol Ther 81, 748–52.Google Scholar
Avena, N M, Rada, P and Hoebel, B G. 2008. Evidence for sugar addiction: Behavioral and neurochemical effects of intermittent, excessive sugar intake. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 32, 20–39.Google Scholar
Avena, N M, Rada, P, Moise, N and Hoebel, B G. 2006. Sucrose sham feeding on a binge schedule releases accumbens dopamine repeatedly and eliminates the acetylcholine satiety response. Neuroscience 139, 813–20.Google Scholar
Baicy, K, London, E D, Monterosso, J, et al. 2007. Leptin replacement alters brain response to food cues in genetically leptin-deficient adults. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104, 18 276–9.Google Scholar
Baldo, B A and Kelley, A E. 2007. Discrete neurochemical coding of distinguishable motivational processes: Insights from nucleus accumbens control of feeding. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 191, 439–59.Google Scholar
Banks, W A. 2008. The blood–brain barrier as a cause of obesity. Curr Pharm Des 14, 1606–14.Google Scholar
Batterham, R L, Cohen, M A, Ellis, S M, et al. 2003. Inhibition of food intake in obese subjects by peptide YY3–36. N Engl J Med 349, 941–8.Google Scholar
Batterham, R L, Ffytche, D H, Rosenthal, J M, et al. 2007. PYY modulation of cortical and hypothalamic brain areas predicts feeding behaviour in humans. Nature 450, 106–09.Google Scholar
Berridge, K C and Robinson, T E. 1998. What is the role of dopamine in reward: Hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? Brain Res Rev 28, 309–69.Google Scholar
Berthoud, H R. 2008. Vagal and hormonal gut–brain communication: From satiation to satisfaction. Neurogastroenterol Motil 20 (Suppl 1), 64–72.Google Scholar
Bessesen, D H. 2008. Update on obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93, 2027–34.Google Scholar
Bina, K G and Cincotta, A H. 2000. Dopaminergic agonists normalize elevated hypothalamic neuropeptide Y and corticotropin-releasing hormone, body weight gain, and hyperglycemia in ob/ob mice. Neuroendocrinology 71, 68–78.Google Scholar
Blackburn, J R, Phillips, A G, Jakubovic, A and Fibiger, H C. 1989. Dopamine and preparatory behavior: II. A neurochemical analysis. Behav Neurosci 103, 15–23.Google Scholar
Brewer, J A and Potenza, M N. 2008. The neurobiology and genetics of impulse control disorders: Relationships to drug addictions. Biochem Pharmacol 75, 63–75.Google Scholar
Brody, S, Keller, U, Degen, L, Cox, D J and Schachinger, H. 2004. Selective processing of food words during insulin-induced hypoglycemia in healthy humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 173, 217–20.Google Scholar
Bruning, J C, Gautam, D, Burks, D J, et al. 2000. Role of brain insulin receptor in control of body weight and reproduction. Science 289, 2122–5.Google Scholar
Burgmer, R, Grigutsch, K, Zipfel, S, et al. 2005. The influence of eating behavior and eating pathology on weight loss after gastric restriction operations. Obes Surg 15, 684–91.Google Scholar
Burton, P, Smit, H J and Lightowler, H J. 2007. The influence of restrained and external eating patterns on overeating. Appetite 49, 191–7.Google Scholar
Cameron, J D, Goldfield, G S, Cyr, M J and Doucet, E. 2008. The effects of prolonged caloric restriction leading to weight-loss on food hedonics and reinforcement. Physiol Behav 94, 474–80.Google Scholar
Capasso, A, Petrella, C and Milano, W. 2009. Pharmacological profile of SSRIs and SNRIs in the treatment of eating disorders. Curr Clin Pharmacol 4, 78–83.Google Scholar
Carr, K D. 2002. Augmentation of drug reward by chronic food restriction: Behavioral evidence and underlying mechanisms. Physiol Behav 76, 353–64.Google Scholar
Carr, K D. 2007. Chronic food restriction: Enhancing effects on drug reward and striatal cell signaling. Physiol Behav 91, 459–72.Google Scholar
Catalano, P M and Ehrenberg, H M. 2006. The short- and long-term implications of maternal obesity on the mother and her offspring. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 113, 1126–33.Google Scholar
Cervo, L, Cocco, A, Petrella, C and Heidbreder, C A. 2007. Selective antagonism at dopamine D3 receptors attenuates cocaine-seeking behaviour in the rat. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 10, 167–81.Google Scholar
Chechlacz, M, Rotshtein, P, Klamer, S, et al. 2009. Diabetes dietary management alters responses to food pictures in brain regions associated with motivation and emotion: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Diabetologia 52, 524–33.Google Scholar
Chen, P S, Yang, Y K, Yeh, T L, et al. 2008a. Correlation between body mass index and striatal dopamine transporter availability in healthy volunteers – A SPECT study. Neuroimage 40, 275–9.Google Scholar
Chen, Y I, Ren, J, Wang, F N, et al. 2008b. Inhibition of stimulated dopamine release and hemodynamic response in the brain through electrical stimulation of rat forepaw. Neurosci Lett 431, 231–5.Google Scholar
Colles, S L, Dixon, J B and O'Brien, P E. 2008. Grazing and loss of control related to eating: Two high-risk factors following bariatric surgery. Obesity (Silver Spring) 16, 615–22.Google Scholar
Comings, D E, Gade, R, MacMurray, J P, Muhleman, D and Peters, W R. 1996. Genetic variants of the human obesity (OB) gene: Association with body mass index in young women, psychiatric symptoms, and interaction with the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene. Mol Psychiatry 1, 325–35.Google Scholar
Cooper, S J and Al-Naser, H A. 2006. Dopaminergic control of food choice: contrasting effects of SKF 38393 and quinpirole on high-palatability food preference in the rat. Neuropharmacology 50, 953–63.Google Scholar
Cox, S M, Andrade, A and Johnsrude, I S. 2005. Learning to like: A role for human orbitofrontal cortex in conditioned reward. J Neurosci 25, 2733–40.Google Scholar
Craig, A D. 2003. Interoception: The sense of the physiological condition of the body. Curr Opin Neurobiol 13, 500–05.Google Scholar
Cummings, D E and Overduin, J. 2007. Gastrointestinal regulation of food intake. J Clin Invest 117, 13–23.Google Scholar
Dalley, J W, Cardinal, R N and Robbins, T W. 2004. Prefrontal executive and cognitive functions in rodents: Neural and neurochemical substrates. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 28, 771–84.Google Scholar
Dallman, M F, Pecoraro, N, Akana, S F, et al. 2003. Chronic stress and obesity: A new view of “comfort food”. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100, 11 696–701.Google Scholar
Davis, C, Levitan, R D, Carter, J, et al. 2008a. Personality and eating behaviors: A case-control study of binge eating disorder. Int J Eat Disord 41, 243–50.Google Scholar
Davis, C, Levitan, R D, Kaplan, A S, et al. 2008b. Reward sensitivity and the D2 dopamine receptor gene: A case-control study of binge eating disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 32, 620–8.Google Scholar
Davis, C, Patte, K, Levitan, R, Reid, C, Tweed, S and Curtis, C. 2007. From motivation to behaviour: A model of reward sensitivity, overeating, and food preferences in the risk profile for obesity. Appetite 48, 12–9.Google Scholar
Delamater, A R. 2007. The role of the orbitofrontal cortex in sensory-specific encoding of associations in pavlovian and instrumental conditioning. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1121, 152–73.Google Scholar
Del Parigi, A, Chen, K, Salbe, A D, et al. 2002. Tasting a liquid meal after a prolonged fast is associated with preferential activation of the left hemisphere. Neuroreport 13, 1141–5.Google Scholar
Del Parigi, A, Chen, K, Salbe, A D, et al. 2004. Persistence of abnormal neural responses to a meal in postobese individuals. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 28, 370–7.Google Scholar
Del Parigi, A, Chen, K, Salbe, A D, Reiman, E M and Tataranni, P A. 2005. Sensory experience of food and obesity: a positron emission tomography study of the brain regions affected by tasting a liquid meal after a prolonged fast. Neuroimage, 24, 436–43.Google Scholar
Di Chiara, G and Bassareo, V. 2007. Reward system and addiction: What dopamine does and doesn't do. Curr Opin Pharmacol 7, 69–76.Google Scholar
Duong, T, Yacoub, E, Adriany, G, Hu, X, Ugurbil, K and Kim, S. 2003. Microvascular BOLD contribution at 4 and 7 T in the human brain: Gradient-echo and spin-echo fMRI with suppression of blood effects. Magn Res Med 49, 1019–27.Google Scholar
Dymek-Valentine, M, Rienecke-Hoste, R and Alverdy, J. 2004. Assessment of binge eating disorder in morbidly obese patients evaluated for gastric bypass: SCID versus QEWP-R. Eat Weight Disord 9, 211–6.Google Scholar
Epstein, L H, Temple, J L, Neaderhiser, B J, Salis, R J, Erbe, R W and Leddy, J J. 2007. Food reinforcement, the dopamine D2 receptor genotype, and energy intake in obese and nonobese humans. Behav Neurosci 121, 877–86.Google Scholar
Epstein, L H, Wright, S M, Paluch, R A, et al. 2004. Food hedonics and reinforcement as determinants of laboratory food intake in smokers. Physiol Behav 81, 511–7.Google Scholar
Erondu, N, Addy, C, Lu, K, et al. 2007. NPY5R antagonism does not augment the weight loss efficacy of orlistat or sibutramine. Obesity (Silver Spring) 15, 2027–42.Google Scholar
Fallon, S, Shearman, E, Sershen, H and Lajtha, A. 2007. Food reward-induced neurotransmitter changes in cognitive brain regions. Neurochem Res 32, 1772–82.Google Scholar
Farooqi, I S, Bullmore, E, Keogh, J, Gillard, J, O'Rahilly, S and Fletcher, P C. 2007. Leptin regulates striatal regions and human eating behavior. Science 317, 1355.Google Scholar
Fedoroff, I, Polivy, J and Herman, C P. 2003. The specificity of restrained versus unrestrained eaters' responses to food cues: General desire to eat, or craving for the cued food? Appetite 41, 7–13.Google Scholar
Fenu, S, Bassareo, V and Di Chiara, G. 2001. A role for dopamine D1 receptors of the nucleus accumbens shell in conditioned taste aversion learning. J Neurosci 21, 6897–904.Google Scholar
Figlewicz, D P, Bennett, J L, Naleid, A M, Davis, C and Grimm, J W. 2006. Intraventricular insulin and leptin decrease sucrose self-administration in rats. Physiol Behav 89, 611–6.Google Scholar
Fiorino, D F, Coury, A, Fibiger, H C and Phillips, A G. 1993. Electrical stimulation of reward sites in the ventral tegmental area increases dopamine transmission in the nucleus accumbens of the rat. Behav Brain Res 55, 131–41.Google Scholar
Frank, G K, Oberndorfer, T A, Simmons, A N, et al. 2008. Sucrose activates human taste pathways differently from artificial sweetener. Neuroimage 39, 1559–69.Google Scholar
Gadde, K M, Franciscy, D M, Wagner, H R and Krishnan, K R. 2003. Zonisamide for weight loss in obese adults: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 289, 1820–5.Google Scholar
Gadde, K M, Yonish, G M, Foust, M S and Wagner, H R. 2007. Combination therapy of zonisamide and bupropion for weight reduction in obese women: A preliminary, randomized, open-label study. J Clin Psychiatry 68, 1226–9.Google Scholar
Gallagher, M, McMahan, R W and Schoenbaum, G. 1999. Orbitofrontal cortex and representation of incentive value in associative learning. J Neurosci 19, 6610–4.Google Scholar
Gallou-Kabani, C and Junien, C. 2005. Nutritional epigenomics of metabolic syndrome: New perspective against the epidemic. Diabetes 54, 1899–906.Google Scholar
Geiger, B M, Behr, G G, Frank, L E, et al. 2008. Evidence for defective mesolimbic dopamine exocytosis in obesity-prone rats. Faseb J 22, 2740–6.Google Scholar
Geliebter, A, Ladell, T, Logan, M, Schneider, T, Sharafi, M and Hirsch, J. 2006. Responsivity to food stimuli in obese and lean binge eaters using functional MRI. Appetite 46, 31–5.Google Scholar
Gilhooly, C H, Das, S K, Golden, J K, et al. 2007. Food cravings and energy regulation: The characteristics of craved foods and their relationship with eating behaviors and weight change during 6 months of dietary energy restriction. Int J Obes (Lond) 31, 1849–58.Google Scholar
Goldfein, J A, Walsh, B T, Lachaussee, J L, Kissileff, H R and Devlin, M J. 1993. Eating behavior in binge eating disorder. Int J Eat Disord 14, 427–31.Google Scholar
Goldstein, R Z and Volkow, N D. 2002. Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: Neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry 159, 1642–52.Google Scholar
Grabenhorst, F, Rolls, E T and Bilderbeck, A. 2008. How cognition modulates affective responses to taste and flavor: Top-down influences on the orbitofrontal and pregenual cingulate cortices. Cereb Cortex 18, 1549–59.Google Scholar
Grace, A A, Floresco, S B, Goto, Y and Lodge, D J. 2007. Regulation of firing of dopaminergic neurons and control of goal-directed behaviors. Trends Neurosci 30, 220–7.Google Scholar
Grilo, C M, Masheb, R M and Wilson, G T. 2006. Rapid response to treatment for binge eating disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol 74, 602–13.Google Scholar
Hainer, V, Toplak, H and Mitrakou, A. 2008. Treatment modalities of obesity: What fits whom? Diabetes Care 31 (Suppl 2), S269–77.Google Scholar
Hajnal, A and Norgren, R. 2005. Taste pathways that mediate accumbens dopamine release by sapid sucrose. Physiol Behav 84, 363–9.Google Scholar
Hajnal, A, Smith, G P and Norgren, R. 2004. Oral sucrose stimulation increases accumbens dopamine in the rat. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 286, R31–7.Google Scholar
Hamdi, A, Porter, J and Prasad, C. 1992. Decreased striatal D2 dopamine receptors in obese Zucker rats: Changes during aging. Brain Res 589, 338–40.Google Scholar
Harrold, J A and Halford, J C. 2006. The hypothalamus and obesity. Recent Patents CNS Drug Discov 1, 305–14.Google Scholar
Heidbreder, C A, Gardner, E L, Xi, Z X, et al. 2005. The role of central dopamine D3 receptors in drug addiction: A review of pharmacological evidence. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 49, 77–105.Google Scholar
Hocke, C, Prante, O, Salama, I, et al. 2008. 18F-Labeled FAUC 346 and BP 897 derivatives as subtype-selective potential PET radioligands for the dopamine D3 receptor. Chem Med Chem 3, 788–93.Google Scholar
Hollander, J A, Lu, Q, Cameron, M D, Kamenecka, T M and Kenny, P J. 2008. Insular hypocretin transmission regulates nicotine reward. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105, 19 480–5.Google Scholar
Huang, X F, Yu, Y, Zavitsanou, K, Han, M and Storlien, L. 2005. Differential expression of dopamine D2 and D4 receptor and tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA in mice prone, or resistant, to chronic high-fat diet-induced obesity. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 135, 150–61.Google Scholar
Huang, X F, Zavitsanou, K, Huang, X, et al. 2006. Dopamine transporter and D2 receptor binding densities in mice prone or resistant to chronic high fat diet-induced obesity. Behav Brain Res 175, 415–9.Google Scholar
Hurd, Y L. 2006. Perspectives on current directions in the neurobiology of addiction disorders relevant to genetic risk factors. CNS Spectr 11, 855–62.Google Scholar
Huttunen, J, Kahkonen, S, Kaakkola, S, Ahveninen, J and Pekkonen, E. 2003. Effects of an acute D2-dopaminergic blockade on the somatosensory cortical responses in healthy humans: Evidence from evoked magnetic fields. Neuroreport 14, 1609–12.Google Scholar
Jimerson, D C, Lesem, M D, Kaye, W H and Brewerton, T D. 1992. Low serotonin and dopamine metabolite concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid from bulimic patients with frequent binge episodes. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49, 132–8.Google Scholar
Jonsson, E G, Nothen, M M, Grunhage, F, et al. 1999. Polymorphisms in the dopamine D2 receptor gene and their relationships to striatal dopamine receptor density of healthy volunteers. Mol Psychiatry 4, 290–6.Google Scholar
Karhunen, L J, Vanninen, E J, Kuikka, J T, Lappalainen, R I, Tiihonen, J and Uusitupa, M I. 2000. Regional cerebral blood flow during exposure to food in obese binge eating women. Psychiatry Res 99, 29–42.Google Scholar
Karra, E, Chandarana, K and Batterham, R L. 2009. The role of peptide YY in appetite regulation and obesity. J Physiol 587, 19–25.Google Scholar
Kelley, A E, Baldo, B A, Pratt, W E and Will, M J. 2005. Corticostriatal-hypothalamic circuitry and food motivation: Integration of energy, action and reward. Physiol Behav 86, 773–95.Google Scholar
Killgore, W D, Young, A D, Femia, L A, Bogorodzki, P, Rogowska, J and Yurgelun-Todd, D A. 2003. Cortical and limbic activation during viewing of high- versus low-calorie foods. Neuroimage 19, 1381–94.Google Scholar
Kim, S G, Ashe, J, Hendrich, K, et al. 1993. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of motor cortex: Hemispheric asymmetry and handedness. Science 261, 615–7.Google Scholar
King, B M. 2006. The rise, fall, and resurrection of the ventromedial hypothalamus in the regulation of feeding behavior and body weight. Physiol Behav 87, 221–44.Google Scholar
Kiyatkin, E A and Gratton, A. 1994. Electrochemical monitoring of extracellular dopamine in nucleus accumbens of rats lever-pressing for food. Brain Res 652, 225–34.Google Scholar
Klein, T A, Neumann, J, Reuter, M, Hennig, J, Cramon, D Y and Ullsperger, M. 2007. Genetically determined differences in learning from errors. Science 318, 1642–5.Google Scholar
Kuikka, J T, Tammela, L, Karhunen, L, et al. 2001. Reduced serotonin transporter binding in binge eating women. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 155, 310–4.Google Scholar
Kuo, M F, Paulus, W and Nitsche, M A. 2008. Boosting focally-induced brain plasticity by dopamine. Cereb Cortex 18, 648–51.Google Scholar
Laruelle, M, Gelernter, J and Innis, R B. 1998. D2 receptors binding potential is not affected by Taq1 polymorphism at the D2 receptor gene. Mol Psychiatry 3, 261–5.Google Scholar
Leibowitz, S F and Alexander, J T. 1998. Hypothalamic serotonin in control of eating behavior, meal size, and body weight. Biol Psychiatry 44, 851–64.Google Scholar
Liang, N C, Hajnal, A and Norgren, R. 2006. Sham feeding corn oil increases accumbens dopamine in the rat. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 291, R1236–9.Google Scholar
Liu, Y, Gao, J H, Liu, H L and Fox, P T. 2000. The temporal response of the brain after eating revealed by functional MRI. Nature 405, 1058–62.Google Scholar
Lustig, R H. 2006. Childhood obesity: behavioral aberration or biochemical drive? Reinterpreting the First Law of Thermodynamics. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2, 447–58.Google Scholar
Machado, C J and Bachevalier, J. 2007. The effects of selective amygdala, orbital frontal cortex or hippocampal formation lesions on reward assessment in nonhuman primates. Eur J Neurosci 25, 2885–904.Google Scholar
Malik, S, McGlone, F, Bedrossian, D and Dagher, A. 2008. Ghrelin modulates brain activity in areas that control appetitive behavior. Cell Metab 7, 400–9.Google Scholar
Matsuda, M, Liu, Y, Mahankali, S, et al. 1999. Altered hypothalamic function in response to glucose ingestion in obese humans. Diabetes 48, 1801–6.Google Scholar
McFarland, K and Ettenberg, A. 1998. Haloperidol does not affect motivational processes in an operant runway model of food-seeking behavior. Behav Neurosci 112, 630–5.Google Scholar
Meguid, M M, Fetissov, S O, Blaha, V and Yang, Z J. 2000. Dopamine and serotonin VMN release is related to feeding status in obese and lean Zucker rats. Neuroreport 11, 2069–72.Google Scholar
Menon, R. 2002. Postacquisition suppression of large-vessel BOLD signals in high-resolution fMRI. Magn Res Med 47, 1–9.Google Scholar
Mietus-Snyder, M L and Lustig, R H. 2008. Childhood obesity: Adrift in the “limbic triangle”. Annu Rev Med 59, 147–62.Google Scholar
Missale, C, Nash, S R, Robinson, S W, Jaber, M and Caron, M G. 1998. Dopamine receptors: From structure to function. Physiol Rev 78, 189–225.Google Scholar
Morrison, C D. 2008. Leptin resistance and the response to positive energy balance. Physiol Behav 94, 660–3.Google Scholar
Morrison, C D and Berthoud, H R. 2007. Neurobiology of nutrition and obesity. Nutr Rev 65, 517–34.Google Scholar
Morton, G J, Cummings, D E, Baskin, D G, Barsh, G S and Schwartz, M W. 2006. Central nervous system control of food intake and body weight. Nature 443, 289–95.Google Scholar
Mrzljak, L, Bergson, C, Pappy, M, Huff, R, Levenson, R and Goldman-Rakic, P S. 1996. Localization of dopamine D4 receptors in GABAergic neurons of the primate brain. Nature 381, 245–8.Google Scholar
Myers, M G, Cowley, M A and Munzberg, H. 2008. Mechanisms of leptin action and leptin resistance. Annu Rev Physiol 70, 537–56.Google Scholar
Naqvi, N H, Rudrauf, D, Damasio, H and Bechara, A. 2007. Damage to the insula disrupts addiction to cigarette smoking. Science 315, 531–4.Google Scholar
Narendran, R, Slifstein, M, Guillin, O, et al. 2006. Dopamine (D2/3) receptor agonist positron emission tomography radiotracer [11C]-(+)-PHNO is a D3 receptor preferring agonist in vivo. Synapse 60, 485–95.Google Scholar
Niego, S H, Kofman, M D, Weiss, J J and Geliebter, A. 2007. Binge eating in the bariatric surgery population: A review of the literature. Int J Eat Disord 40, 349–59.Google Scholar
Noble, E P, Blum, K, Ritchie, T, Montgomery, A and Sheridan, P J. 1991. Allelic association of the D2 dopamine receptor gene with receptor-binding characteristics in alcoholism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48, 648–54.Google Scholar
Noble, E P, Noble, R E, Ritchie, T, et al. 1994. D2 dopamine receptor gene and obesity. Int J Eat Disord 15, 205–17.Google Scholar
Oak, J N, Oldenhof, J and Tol, H H. 2000. The dopamine D(4) receptor: One decade of research. Eur J Pharmacol 405, 303–27.Google Scholar
Ogawa, S, Lee, T M, Kay, A R and Tank, D W. 1990. Brain magnetic resonance imaging with contrast dependent on blood oxygenation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 87, 9868–72.Google Scholar
Ogawa, S, Menon, R S, Tank, D W, et al. 1993. Functional brain mapping by blood oxygenation level-dependent contrast magnetic resonance imaging. A comparison of signal characteristics with a biophysical model. Biophys J 64, 803–12.Google Scholar
Ogden, C L, Carroll, M D, Curtin, L R, et al. 2006. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999–2004. JAMA 295, 1549–55.Google Scholar
Ogden, C L, Carroll, M D and Flegal, K M. 2008. High body mass index for age among US children and adolescents, 2003–2006. JAMA 299, 2401–5.Google Scholar
Ogden, C L, Carroll, M D, McDowell, M A and Flegal, K M. 2007a. Obesity among adults in the United States – No change since 2003–2004. NCHS Data Brief No 1. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
Ogden, C L, Yanovski, S Z, Carroll, M D and Flegal, K M. 2007b. The epidemiology of obesity. Gastroenterology 132, 2087–102.Google Scholar
Ogden, J and Wardle, J. 1990. Cognitive restraint and sensitivity to cues for hunger and satiety. Physiol Behav 47, 477–81.Google Scholar
Palmiter, R D. 2007. Is dopamine a physiologically relevant mediator of feeding behavior? Trends Neurosci 30, 375–81.Google Scholar
Palmiter, R D. 2008. Dopamine signaling in the dorsal striatum is essential for motivated behaviors: Lessons from dopamine-deficient mice. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1129, 35–46.Google Scholar
Parkinson, J R, Chaudhri, O B, Kuo, Y T, et al. 2009. Differential patterns of neuronal activation in the brainstem and hypothalamus following peripheral injection of GLP-1, oxyntomodulin and lithium chloride in mice detected by manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MEMRI). Neuroimage 44, 1022–31.Google Scholar
Passamonti, L, Rowe, J B, Schwarzbauer, C, Ewbank, M P, Dem Hagen, E and Calder, A J. 2009. Personality predicts the brain's response to viewing appetizing foods: The neural basis of a risk factor for overeating. J Neurosci 29, 43–51.Google Scholar
Pelchat, M L, Johnson, A, Chan, R, Valdez, J and Ragland, J D. 2004. Images of desire: Food-craving activation during fMRI. Neuroimage 23, 1486–93.Google Scholar
Peleg-Raibstein, D, Pezze, M A, Ferger, B, et al. 2005. Activation of dopaminergic neurotransmission in the medial prefrontal cortex by N-methyl-D-aspartate stimulation of the ventral hippocampus in rats. Neuroscience 132, 219–32.Google Scholar
Petrovich, G D and Gallagher, M. 2003. Amygdala subsystems and control of feeding behavior by learned cues. Ann N Y Acad Sci 985, 251–62.Google Scholar
Pfaffly, J, Michaelides, M, Wang, G J, Pessin, J E, Volkow, N D and Thanos, P K. 2010. Leptin increases striatal dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) binding in leptin-deficient obese (ob/ob) mice. Synapse 64, 503–10.Google Scholar
Pijl, H. 2003. Reduced dopaminergic tone in hypothalamic neural circuits: expression of a “thrifty” genotype underlying the metabolic syndrome? Eur J Pharmacol 480, 125–31.Google Scholar
Prante, O, Tietze, R, Hocke, C, et al. 2008. Synthesis, radiofluorination, and in vitro evaluation of pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-based dopamine D4 receptor ligands: Discovery of an inverse agonist radioligand for PET. J Med Chem 51, 1800–10.Google Scholar
Rada, P, Avena, N M and Hoebel, B G. 2005. Daily bingeing on sugar repeatedly releases dopamine in the accumbens shell. Neuroscience 134, 737–44.Google Scholar
Regard, M and Landis, T. 1997. “Gourmand syndrome”: Eating passion associated with right anterior lesions. Neurology 48, 1185–90.Google Scholar
Ren, X, Zhou, L, Terwilliger, R, Newton, S S and Araujo, I E. 2009. Sweet taste signaling functions as a hypothalamic glucose sensor. Front Integr Neurosci 3, 12.Google Scholar
Ritchie, T and Noble, E P. 2003. Association of seven polymorphisms of the D2 dopamine receptor gene with brain receptor-binding characteristics. Neurochem Res 28, 73–82.Google Scholar
Rivera, A, Cuellar, B, Giron, F J, Grandy, D K, Calle, A and Moratalla, R. 2002. Dopamine D4 receptors are heterogeneously distributed in the striosomes/matrix compartments of the striatum. J Neurochem 80, 219–29.Google Scholar
Robinson, S, Rainwater, A J, Hnasko, T S and Palmiter, R D. 2007. Viral restoration of dopamine signaling to the dorsal striatum restores instrumental conditioning to dopamine-deficient mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 191, 567–78.Google Scholar
Rolls, E T. 2007. Sensory processing in the brain related to the control of food intake. Proc Nutr Soc 66, 96–112.Google Scholar
Rolls, E T and McCabe, C. 2007. Enhanced affective brain representations of chocolate in cravers vs. non-cravers. Eur J Neurosci 26, 1067–76.Google Scholar
Rosenbaum, M, Goldsmith, R, Bloomfield, D, et al. 2005. Low-dose leptin reverses skeletal muscle, autonomic, and neuroendocrine adaptations to maintenance of reduced weight. J Clin Invest 115, 3579–86.Google Scholar
Rosenbaum, M, Sy, M, Pavlovich, K, Leibel, R L and Hirsch, J. 2008. Leptin reverses weight loss-induced changes in regional neural activity responses to visual food stimuli. J Clin Invest 118, 2583–91.Google Scholar
Ross, M G and Desai, M. 2005. Gestational programming: Population survival effects of drought and famine during pregnancy. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 288, R25–33.Google Scholar
Rossini, P M, Bassetti, M A and Pasqualetti, P. 1995. Median nerve somatosensory evoked potentials. Apomorphine-induced transient potentiation of frontal components in Parkinson's disease and in parkinsonism. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 96, 236–47.Google Scholar
Rotte, M, Baerecke, C, Pottag, G, et al. 2005. Insulin affects the neuronal response in the medial temporal lobe in humans. Neuroendocrinology 81, 49–55.Google Scholar
Sallet, P C, Sallet, J A, Dixon, J B, et al. 2007. Eating behavior as a prognostic factor for weight loss after gastric bypass. Obes Surg 17, 445–51.Google Scholar
Schienle, A, Schafer, A, Hermann, A and Vaitl, D. 2009. Binge-eating disorder: Reward sensitivity and brain activation to images of food. Biol Psychiatry 65, 654–61.Google Scholar
Schultes, B, Peters, A, Kern, W, et al. 2005. Processing of food stimuli is selectively enhanced during insulin-induced hypoglycemia in healthy men. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30, 496–504.Google Scholar
Schultz, W. 2004. Neural coding of basic reward terms of animal learning theory, game theory, microeconomics and behavioural ecology. Curr Opin Neurobiol 14, 139–47.Google Scholar
Schultz, W, Apicella, P and Ljungberg, T. 1993. Responses of monkey dopamine neurons to reward and conditioned stimuli during successive steps of learning a delayed response task. J Neurosci 13, 900–13.Google Scholar
Segal, N L and Allison, D B. 2002. Twins and virtual twins: Bases of relative body weight revisited. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 26, 437–41.Google Scholar
Self, D W, Barnhart, W J, Lehman, D A and Nestler, E J. 1996. Opposite modulation of cocaine-seeking behavior by D1- and D2-like dopamine receptor agonists. Science 271, 1586–9.Google Scholar
Shimura, T, Kamada, Y and Yamamoto, T. 2002. Ventral tegmental lesions reduce overconsumption of normally preferred taste fluid in rats. Behav Brain Res 134, 123–30.Google Scholar
Small, D M, Jones-Gotman, M and Dagher, A. 2003. Feeding-induced dopamine release in dorsal striatum correlates with meal pleasantness ratings in healthy human volunteers. Neuroimage 19, 1709–15.Google Scholar
Small, D M and Prescott, J. 2005. Odor/taste integration and the perception of flavor. Exp Brain Res 166, 345–57.Google Scholar
Smeets, P A, Graaf, C, Stafleu, A, Osch, M J, Nievelstein, R A and Grond, J. 2006. Effect of satiety on brain activation during chocolate tasting in men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 83, 1297–305.Google Scholar
Smeets, P A, Graaf, C, Stafleu, A, Osch, M J and Grond, J. 2005. Functional MRI of human hypothalamic responses following glucose ingestion. Neuroimage 24, 363–8.Google Scholar
Smith, G P. 2004. Accumbens dopamine mediates the rewarding effect of orosensory stimulation by sucrose. Appetite 43, 11–3.Google Scholar
Sotak, B N, Hnasko, T S, Robinson, S, Kremer, E J and Palmiter, R D. 2005. Dysregulation of dopamine signaling in the dorsal striatum inhibits feeding. Brain Res 1061, 88–96.Google Scholar
Spitz, M R, Duphorne, C M, Detry, M A, et al. 2000. Dietary intake of isothiocyanates: evidence of a joint effect with glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms in lung cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 9, 1017–20.Google Scholar
Staley, J K, Malison, R T and Innis, R B. 1998. Imaging of the serotonergic system: Interactions of neuroanatomical and functional abnormalities of depression. Biol Psychiatry 44, 534–49.Google Scholar
Stenlof, K, Rossner, S, Vercruysse, F, Kumar, A, Fitchet, M and Sjostrom, L. 2007. Topiramate in the treatment of obese subjects with drug-naive type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab 9, 360–8.Google Scholar
Stice, E, Spoor, S, Bohon, C and Small, D M. 2008a. Relation between obesity and blunted striatal response to food is moderated by TaqIA A1 allele. Science 322, 449–52.Google Scholar
Stice, E, Spoor, S, Bohon, C, Veldhuizen, M G and Small, D M. 2008b. Relation of reward from food intake and anticipated food intake to obesity: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J Abnorm Psychol 117, 924–35.Google Scholar
Stunkard, A J and Wadden, T A. 1993. Obesity Theory and Therapy (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Raven Press.
Szczypka, M S, Kwok, K, Brot, M D, et al. 2001. Dopamine production in the caudate putamen restores feeding in dopamine-deficient mice. Neuron 30, 819–28.Google Scholar
Tauscher, J, Pirker, W, Willeit, M, et al. 2001. [123I] beta-CIT and single photon emission computed tomography reveal reduced brain serotonin transporter availability in bulimia nervosa. Biol Psychiatry 49, 326–32.Google Scholar
Thanos, P K, Michaelides, M, Gispert, J D, et al. 2008a. Differences in response to food stimuli in a rat model of obesity: In-vivo assessment of brain glucose metabolism. Int J Obes (Lond) 32, 1171–9.Google Scholar
Thanos, P K, Michaelides, M, Ho, C W, et al. 2008b. The effects of two highly selective dopamine D3 receptor antagonists (SB-277011A and NGB-2904) on food self-administration in a rodent model of obesity. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 89, 499–507.Google Scholar
Thanos, P K, Michaelides, M, Piyis, Y K, Wang, G J and Volkow, N D. 2008c. Food restriction markedly increases dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) in a rat model of obesity as assessed with in-vivo muPET imaging ([11C] raclopride) and in-vitro ([3H] spiperone) autoradiography. Synapse 62, 50–61.Google Scholar
Tracy, A L, Jarrard, L E and Davidson, T L. 2001. The hippocampus and motivation revisited: Appetite and activity. Behav Brain Res 127, 13–23.Google Scholar
Trevitt, J T, Carlson, B B, Nowend, K and Salamone, J D. 2001. Substantia nigra pars reticulata is a highly potent site of action for the behavioral effects of the D1 antagonist SCH 23390 in the rat. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 156, 32–41.Google Scholar
Tupala, E, Hall, H, Mantere, T, Rasanen, P, Sarkioja, T and Tiihonen, J. 2003. Dopamine receptors and transporters in the brain reward circuits of type 1 and 2 alcoholics measured with human whole hemisphere autoradiography. Neuroimage 19, 145–55.Google Scholar
Turner, R, Jezzard, P, Wen, H, et al. 1993. Functional mapping of the human visual cortex at 4 and 1.5 Tesla using deoxygenation contrast EPI. Magn Res Med 29, 277–9.Google Scholar
Ugurbil, K, Hu, X, Chen, W, Zhu, X, Kim, S and Georgopoulos, A. 1999. Functional mapping in the human brain using high magnetic fields. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 354, 1195–213.Google Scholar
Volkow, N D, Chang, L, Wang, G J, et al. 2001. Low level of brain dopamine D2 receptors in methamphetamine abusers: Association with metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry 158, 2015–21.Google Scholar
Volkow, N D, Fowler, J S, Wang, G J, et al. 1993. Decreased dopamine D2 receptor availability is associated with reduced frontal metabolism in cocaine abusers. Synapse 14, 169–77.Google Scholar
Volkow, N D, Wang, G J, Begleiter, H, et al. 2006. High levels of dopamine D2 receptors in unaffected members of alcoholic families: Possible protective factors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63, 999–1008.Google Scholar
Volkow, N D, Wang, G J, Fowler, J S, et al. 2002. “Nonhedonic” food motivation in humans involves dopamine in the dorsal striatum and methylphenidate amplifies this effect. Synapse 44, 175–80.Google Scholar
Volkow, N D, Wang, G J, Fowler, J S and Telang, F. 2008a. Overlapping neuronal circuits in addiction and obesity: Evidence of systems pathology. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 363, 3191–200.Google Scholar
Volkow, N D, Wang, G J, Telang, F, et al. 2009. Inverse association between BMI and prefrontal metabolic activity in healthy adults. Obesity (Silver Spring) 17, 60–5.Google Scholar
Volkow, N D, Wang, G J, Telang, F, et al. 2007. Profound decreases in dopamine release in striatum in detoxified alcoholics: Possible orbitofrontal involvement. J Neurosci 27, 12 700–06.Google Scholar
Volkow, N D, Wang, G J, Telang, F, et al. 2008b. Low dopamine striatal D2 receptors are associated with prefrontal metabolism in obese subjects: Possible contributing factors. Neuroimage 42, 1537–43.Google Scholar
Volkow, N D and Wise, R A. 2005. How can drug addiction help us understand obesity? Nat Neurosci 8, 555–60.Google Scholar
Wagner, A, Aizenstein, H, Mazurkewicz, L, et al. 2008. Altered insula response to taste stimuli in individuals recovered from restricting-type anorexia nervosa. Neuropsychopharmacology 33, 513–23.Google Scholar
Wang, G J, Tomasi, D, Backus, W, et al. 2008. Gastric distention activates satiety circuitry in the human brain. Neuroimage 39, 1824–31.Google Scholar
Wang, G J, Volkow, N D, Felder, C, et al. 2002. Enhanced resting activity of the oral somatosensory cortex in obese subjects. Neuroreport 13, 1151–5.Google Scholar
Wang, G J, Volkow, N D, Logan, J, et al. 2001. Brain dopamine and obesity. Lancet 357, 354–7.Google Scholar
Wang, G J, Volkow, N D, Telang, F, et al. 2004. Exposure to appetitive food stimuli markedly activates the human brain. Neuroimage 21, 1790–7.Google Scholar
Wang, G J, Volkow, N D, Telang, F, et al. 2009. Evidence of gender differences in the ability to inhibit brain activation elicited by food stimulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106, 1249–54.Google Scholar
Wang, G J, Yang, J, Volkow, N D, et al. 2006. Gastric stimulation in obese subjects activates the hippocampus and other regions involved in brain reward circuitry. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103, 15 641–5.Google Scholar
Watanabe, M, Cromwell, H C, Tremblay, L, Hollerman, J R, Hikosaka, K and Schultz, W. 2001. Behavioral reactions reflecting differential reward expectations in monkeys. Exp Brain Res 140, 511–8.Google Scholar
Weingarten, H P. 1983. Conditioned cues elicit feeding in sated rats: A role for learning in meal initiation. Science 220, 431–3.Google Scholar
Will, M J, Franzblau, E B and Kelley, A E. 2003. Nucleus accumbens mu-opioids regulate intake of a high-fat diet via activation of a distributed brain network. J Neurosci 23, 2882–8.Google Scholar
Will, M J, Pratt, W E and Kelley, A E. 2006. Pharmacological characterization of high-fat feeding induced by opioid stimulation of the ventral striatum. Physiol Behav 89, 226–34.Google Scholar
Wise, R A. 2006. Role of brain dopamine in food reward and reinforcement. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361, 1149–58.Google Scholar
Wise, R A, Murray, A and Bozarth, M A. 1990. Bromocriptine self-administration and bromocriptine-reinstatement of cocaine-trained and heroin-trained lever pressing in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 100, 355–60.Google Scholar
Wolnerhanssen, B K, Peters, T, Kern, B, et al. 2008. Predictors of outcome in treatment of morbid obesity by laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding: Results of a prospective study of 380 patients. Surg Obes Relat Dis 4, 500–06.Google Scholar
Woolley, J D, Lee, B S and Fields, H L. 2006. Nucleus accumbens opioids regulate flavor-based preferences in food consumption. Neuroscience 143, 309–17.Google Scholar
Wren, A M. 2008. Gut and hormones and obesity. Front Horm Res 36, 165–81.Google Scholar
Yanovski, S Z, Nelson, J E, Dubbert, B K and Spitzer, R L. 1993. Association of binge eating disorder and psychiatric comorbidity in obese subjects. Am J Psychiatry 150, 1472–9.Google Scholar
Yeomans, M R and Gray, R W. 1997. Effects of naltrexone on food intake and changes in subjective appetite during eating: Evidence for opioid involvement in the appetizer effect. Physiol Behav 62, 15–21.Google Scholar
Zhang, Y, Proenca, R, Maffei, M, Barone, M, Leopold, L and Friedman, J M. 1994. Positional cloning of the mouse obese gene and its human homologue. Nature 372, 425–32.Google Scholar
Zink, C F, Pagnoni, G, Martin, M E, Dhamala, M and Berns, G S. 2003. Human striatal response to salient nonrewarding stimuli. J Neurosci 23, 8092–7.Google Scholar
Zipursky, R B, Meyer, J H and Verhoeff, N P. 2007. PET and SPECT imaging in psychiatric disorders. Can J Psychiatry 52, 146–57.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

  • Neuroimaging of obesity
    • By Gene-Jack Wang, Department of Psychiatry Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York, NY, USA and Medical Department Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, NY, USA, Nora D. Volkow, National institute of Drug Abuse and National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Bethesda, MD, USA, Joanna S. Fowler, Department of Psychiatry Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York, NY, USA and Medical Department Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, NY, USA, Panayotis K. Thanos, National institute of Drug Abuse and National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Bethesda, MD, USA
  • Edited by Martha E. Shenton, Bruce I. Turetsky, University of Pennsylvania
  • Book: Understanding Neuropsychiatric Disorders
  • Online publication: 10 January 2011
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511782091.035
Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

  • Neuroimaging of obesity
    • By Gene-Jack Wang, Department of Psychiatry Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York, NY, USA and Medical Department Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, NY, USA, Nora D. Volkow, National institute of Drug Abuse and National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Bethesda, MD, USA, Joanna S. Fowler, Department of Psychiatry Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York, NY, USA and Medical Department Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, NY, USA, Panayotis K. Thanos, National institute of Drug Abuse and National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Bethesda, MD, USA
  • Edited by Martha E. Shenton, Bruce I. Turetsky, University of Pennsylvania
  • Book: Understanding Neuropsychiatric Disorders
  • Online publication: 10 January 2011
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511782091.035
Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

  • Neuroimaging of obesity
    • By Gene-Jack Wang, Department of Psychiatry Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York, NY, USA and Medical Department Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, NY, USA, Nora D. Volkow, National institute of Drug Abuse and National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Bethesda, MD, USA, Joanna S. Fowler, Department of Psychiatry Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York, NY, USA and Medical Department Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, NY, USA, Panayotis K. Thanos, National institute of Drug Abuse and National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Bethesda, MD, USA
  • Edited by Martha E. Shenton, Bruce I. Turetsky, University of Pennsylvania
  • Book: Understanding Neuropsychiatric Disorders
  • Online publication: 10 January 2011
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511782091.035
Available formats
×