The concluding chapter reflects on the future of American hierarchy and state development in light of the book’s findings. It discusses potential changes in American economic priorities and the rise of new hierarchies in the international system. The chapter explores the implications for partner states and highlights the need for further research on the role of nonstate actors, such as firms and international organizations. It also considers the normative implications of the book’s findings and underscores the importance of understanding the complex effects of hierarchy on state-building.

Chapter 4 explores the normative challenge of the experience of dehumanisation. It starts from a paradigmatic case of dehumanisation, as it was described from a first-person perspective: the torture of Jean Améry. This description offers a phenomenology of dehumanisation. In order to deepen the analysis, the experience of dehumanisation is subsequently confronted with recent work on alienation. This opens up the critical potential of the experience of dehumanisation challenging important concepts that figure prominently in debates on (the aftermath of) atrocities.

What are the normative implications of political regulation waves? Based on quantitative counterfactual estimation and qualitative case description, this chapter assesses the hard tradeoffs imposed by political regulation waves – between social stability, employment, economic growth, and health and longevity among local populations. Local leaders face incentives to signal competence by promoting laxer environmental regulation to benefit jobs and the economy, imposing a measurable human cost due to dirtier air. Conversely, when local leaders seek to move up the political ladder by strengthening the implementation of regulations in pursuit of blue skies, air quality improves, but firms suffer profit losses, and many people lose their jobs and are forced to spend brutal winters without heating. One form of the political regulation wave is not inherently better than another. These are difficult tradeoffs.

The final chapter offers concluding remarks on the principal contributions of this project. It emphasizes the important insights to be gained by viewing representation through the lens of the consciously cultivated legislative reputations and highlights the benefits of using the advocacy window as an analytical tool for understanding the quality of representation that different disadvantaged groups receive from their representatives. Additionally, it reflects on the normative implications of this project, particularly for the representation of racial/ethnic minorities. The chapter closes by discussing future extensions of the research agenda.