Chapter 1 introduces the main arguments, findings, and contributions of the book. Counterrevolution is a subject that has often been overlooked by scholars, even as counterrevolutions have been responsible for establishing some of history’s most brutal regimes, for cutting short experiments in democracy and radical change, and for perpetuating vicious cycles of conflict and instability. The chapter reveals some of the most important statistics from the book’s original dataset of counterrevolution worldwide. These statistics raise a number of puzzling questions, which motivate the theoretical argument about counterrevolutionary emergence and success. After previewing this argument, the chapter discusses the main contributions of the book, including to theories of revolution, democratization, and nonviolence; to ongoing debates about Egypt’s revolution and the failures of the 2011 Arab Spring; and to our understanding of the present-day resurgence of authoritarianism worldwide. It finishes by laying out the multi-method research strategy and providing an overview of the chapters to come.

The introduction presents the main arguments that will be developed in the book and how letters and petitions that were found in the military archive are the basis from which to argue that the military was an institution in the first half of the nineteenth century. The nearly one thousand case studies provide the information that makes it possible to understand the Peruvian armed forces. This chapter also covers the historiographical debate by discussing the notion of caudillos and how although most of the new republics have been seen as controlled by armed men on horseback, the military can be described as an insitution that while having a colonial origin, transformed throughout the wars of independence. The way in which those who became members of the armed forces is analyzed in detail showing that a social system of protection for those who were part of it developed from the colonial systems Comparisons are made with the cases of the United States, France, Spain and the rest of Latin America. This section ends with a description of the book’s structure and a description of each chapter.

Chapter 3 probes the meaning of the word ‘equality’. It outlines a multidimensional, substantive conception of equality, as adopted by the UN Committee for the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. But it notes the Act’s lack of engagement with some aspects of this ideal. The Act’s scope is both more limited and more individualised than this substantive concept might demand. Making sense of what law might intend to contribute to meeting equality ideals is difficult but necessary, as it can provide a benchmark against which to evaluate the law. With this in mind, this chapter proposes five potential objectives, which are guided by the Act’s scope. These range from changing attitudes and shaping perceived social norms through to influencing behaviours or compensating victims of negative treatment. These potential objectives are used as a framework for assessment of law’s contribution throughout the rest of the book.

Authenticity plays key methodological and normative roles for early Heidegger: as he puts it, to ‘work out the question of Being adequately … we must make an entity – the inquirer – transparent in his own Being’. But the precise nature of those roles, and how Heidegger differs from other thinkers of authenticity, is much less clear. This chapter considers three possible interpretations of authenticity found in the contemporary literature. On a transcendental reading, authenticity is what allows us to first recognize reasons as such and act in light of norms at all. On a unity reading, authenticity unifies Dasein’s commitments, and thereby grants a special narrative or judgmental coherence to my life. Finally, on the structural reading, ultimately defended here, authenticity is an inchoate awareness of the structural features of normative space and of Dasein’s own way of being. It is only this interpretation, it is argued, that can make sense of Heidegger’s text and the centrality of authenticity within his early work.

In this chapter, I examine arguments that have been or might be used to establish or defend the distinction that Heidegger draws between entities (things that are) and the being of entities (that by virtue of which those things are). I find these arguments for the ontological difference to fail – due largely to the self-concealing nature of being, which makes it difficult to distinguish being from entities. At the same time, I see something positive in these troubles for the ontological difference, that is, they serve as prompts to question the meaning of being.

TOTs are inherently subjective experiences; only the experiencer can really know whether one is happening and what it feels like as it does. As such, methodologies and their nuances are extremely important. This chapter covers the various methods that have been employed to measure TOTs. The prospecting method – now the most widely used method of studying TOTs – was first developed by Brown and McNeill (1966) in their seminal paper. Present-day use of the method commonly employs word definitions, general-information questions, or faces of famous people. The method can also be adapted to new learning. It is also important to determine how accurate TOTs are at predicting later memory, and we discuss approaches to doing so. Another approach to studying TOTs involves diary studies, in which people are asked to record their naturally occurring TOTs and their qualities and characteristics over a set period of time. How TOT rates should be computed remains an important issue. Depending on one's theoretical approach, it can make sense to divide the number of TOTs over all unrecalled items, or it may be better to divide the number of TOTs over TOTs plus correctly recalled items.

This chapter considers the shift in Holocaust historiography since the end of the Cold War to focus on eastern Europe and, increasingly, on neglected areas such as south-eastern Europe. Noteworthy too is the increasing diversity in methodologies, including digital humanities, gender history, family history, microhistory, transnational history, and spatial, geographical, and material approaches. Each of these strands approaches sources differently, meaning that what historians consider to be a usable source has also changed a great deal. This diversity reflects also the changing face of the historical profession itself and the world in which it operates. Our awareness has grown that the Holocaust was a continent-wide crime committed by willing participants everywhere. The historiography is moving in two opposite directions: towards more microhistories, but also towards greater understanding of the continent-wide scale of the Holocaust, with a particular focus on the hitherto unacknowledged extent of participation in the killings by non-Germans all across Europe. How to reconcile them and bring all of this research together is the challenge of our hyper-productive times.

We review experimental research on judicial decision-making with a focus on methodological issues. First, we argue that only experiments with relatively high realism, in particular real judges as study subjects, plausibly generalize to judicial decision-making in the real world. Most experimental evidence shows lay subjects to behave very differently from expert judges in specifically legal tasks. Second, we argue that studying the effects of non-law is not a substitute for studying the effects of law since large unexplained residuals could be attributed to either. Direct experimental studies of the law effect are few and find it to be puzzlingly weak. Third, we review the substantive findings of experiments with judges, distinguishing between studies investigating legal and nonlegal factors and paying close attention to the nature of the experimental task.

Chapter 4 is devoted to the methodology applied in this book. For one, I motivate the choice of the twenty-four CPs investigated in this study and explain how they have been retrieved. Secondly, I ask how we can best operationalize the concepts of semantic scope and semantic specialization, which are relevant to test the first and the second hypotheses (Section 3.4). This presentation is followed by an introduction of the three different types of semantic specialization investigated in this study and an answer to the question of how they are operationalized. Here, I focus a) on the modifier slot (Section 4.3.1), b) on the determiner slot (Section 4.3.2) and c) on the wider assertive or non-assertive contexts that the CPs occur in. The chapter is concluded by an outline of the corpora in use, the time periods investigated and the statistical tests applied (Section 4.4).

The introduction presents the aims, methodology, genre, audience, and content of the book. My focus is on Tolkien’s literary ‘theory’, as informed by his own self-exegesis, that is, by Tolkien’s “experiment” and “observation” of his own literary work and experience as a writer. This explains my methodology, which is primarily inductive and exegetical, grounded as it is on a series of close readings of passages from Tolkien’s works. At the same time, Tolkien’s ‘theory’, however idiosyncratic, cannot be detached from the literary discourses of his age, nor from the traditions in which it is anchored. Despite its scope and specialism, the book is not only addressed to Tolkien readers and scholars, but also to the educated reader of English literature, who might have strong biases about the literary merits of Tolkien’s enterprise. In the book I will thus illustrate the depth and complexity of Tolkien’s literature by focusing on its meta-literary sophistication, that is, its self-reflexive focus on the nature and purpose of literature.

If our aim is to pluralise the ‘subjects, methods, and aims’ of the academic study of international organisations, then one fairly obvious route to follow is that of historicisation. Historians of international organisations have elected a variety of avenues to relate the creation and the design of international institutions. Building on their work, this chapter offers another tool to the methodological palette the present volume offers; on the other hand and more specifically, I want to reflect on what international organisations are from the point of view of their making. To do so, I zoom in on one important moment in the history of modern international organisations: the 1865 international telegraph commission in Paris that convened to determine the scope and purpose of the first formal and permanent international organisation, the International Telegraph Union. I approach this case through the lens of micro-politics, combining biographical and sociological methods. Methodologically I study international organisations by means of biographical membership analysis; theoretically I argue that international organisations cannot be fully understood in separation from the situated political motives of their makers.